I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 



t4/'^ |w"#t f 0- 



J .^^^ V. 5.4.4 I 



! UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FIRST CIRCLE 



E^ 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE 



FOR THE 



FOURTH YEAR OR GRADE. 



BY 

ThR^VICKROY, A.M., 

Author of "An Elementary Grammar of the English Language,'* etc. 




Activity is a law of childhood; therefore accustom the child to do. — Pestalozzi. 

Practice always precedes theory. We do the thing before we understand why 
ice do it. — Agassiz. 



nl 



ST. LOUIS: 
G. I. JO^TJS AXD COMPAJSiY. 

188 0. 



11 



TEim 



Entered according- to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by 

T. R. VICKROY, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at \Vashington. 



PEEFAOE. 



The following is the first of a series of little books designed 
to treat the subject of Grammar inductively and synthetically. 
In its widest sense, grammar treats of the elements of lan- 
guage, and hence its study begins with the first day of the 
child's school-life. 

Two objects are sought in language culture : i. To enable 
the pupil to express his own thoughts; and 2. To enable him 
to gain knowledge from what others have written. 

School instruction usually begins with the study of letters. 
The child, in learning to read and spell, learns words and 
grasps the notions which they express. He thus learns the 
use of language before he studies the principles on which it is 
based. While this process is going on, the habit of correct 
speaking should be cultivated. Every error should be cor- 
rected when it occurs, nor should this be postponed to a later 
period. 

When the child begins the Fourth Reader, he is capable of 
reflecting on the forms he has been accustomed to use. His 
powers have been so far developed that he may begin a sys- 
tematic study of language. 

This Circle is designed to conduct him through the first 
stage of this technical study. At first a few principles only 
are presented and elucidated. That these may be thoroughly 
fixed in the mind, am.ple drills are prepared, with suggestions 
by which the teacher can extend them as far as may be deemed 
necessary. The principle of this book is the mmimum of 
statement and the maximum of exercise. This will give con- 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE^ 

creteness to the instruction, and prevent the cramming of the 
memory with statements which the child cannot grasp. 

The pupil must learn how to express his own thoughts — 
he must learn the use of oral and of written language. As the 
exercises are to be prepared in writings the pupil will learn 
practical composition. He learns how to express thought, 
and how to clothe it in its accustomed forms. Capitals and 
punctuation-marks are learned and fixed by suitable exercises^ 
and then their use is continually required in the exercises 
which follow. Thus the pupil will learn^ in a practical way^ 
\}?i^ grammatical, lexical, and r/z^/^r/^<2/[ elements of the lan- 
guage, and, at the same time, he will have gained a cultured 
power. 

While the method of the Circles is inductive and synthetic, 
the analysis of thought will not be overlooked. Since lan- 
guage is the product of the discursive faculty^ and this faculty 
has its laws of action, it is evident that the elements of lan- 
guage may be reduced to a few fundamental types. Begin- 
ning with subject and predicate^ element after element will 
be introduced, until sentences of the most involved sj:ructure 
d^xQ fully presented and mastered. 

From this it will be seen that the author has attempted to 
unify the prominent tendencies of the age, by combining the 
prominent features of each. 

On the psychological side, the plan and arrangement, it is 
believed, will accord with the laws which govern mental de- 
velopment. 

Mr. Thomas Davidson has read the MSS. and proofs, and 
has made many valuable suggestions. 

The Table of Contents will best exhibit the plan of the 
book. • 

St. Louis, April, 1 880. 



TABLE OF COI^TEI^TS. 



CHAPTER I. The Sentence and its Parts (pp. 9-18). 

I. Principles Elucidated. 

1. Recognizing Objects 6 

2. Distinguishing Objects and Words 10 

3. The Sentence . c 11 

4. The Parts of the Sentence 11 

5. The Subject 12 

6. The Predicate 13 

7. Review Questions 13 

II. Practical Drills. 

1. Marking the Subject and Predicate 14 

2. Filhng Blanks 14 

3. Composing Sentences with a Given Subject 14 

4. Composing Sentences with a Given Predicate 15 

5. Composing Sentences of Given Words 15 

6. Marking Sentences having Limited Subjects 15 

7. Marking Sentences having Lim^ited Predicates .... 16 

8. Marking Sentences having both ]\Iembers limited ... 16 

9. Marking Transposed Sentences 17 

10. Marking Selections from Reader 18 

CHAPTER II. Kinds of Sentences (19-23). 

I. Principles Elucidated. 

1. Sentences presented 19 

2. Inferences dra^vn 19 

(V) 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

3. Sentences defined, viz : — 

{a,) The Declarative Sentence 20 

(<5.) The Conditional Sentence 20 

(c) The Imperative Sentence 20 

{d.) The Interrogative Sentence 20 

(^.) The Exclamative Sentence 21 

II. Practical Drills. 

1. Telling the Kind of Sentence 21--22 

2. Changing given Sentences into the Other Kinds .... 22-23 

3. Separating Given Extracts into Sentences 23 



CHAPTER III. Punctuation (24-26). 

I. Principles Elucidated. 

1. The Use of the Period 24 

2. The Use of the Interrogation-Point 25 

3. The Use of the Exclamation-Point 26 

II. Practical Drills. 

1. Punctuating Given Sentences 26 

2. Punctuating Given Extracts 26 

3. Punctuating Extracts to be dictated 26 



CHAPTER IV. Capitals (27-33). 

1. Seven Simple Rules for Capitals 27 

2. Exercises on these Rules * 28 

3. Correcting Given Extracts 28 

4. Correcting Sentences to be dictated 29 

5. Writing lists of Geographical Names 30 

6. Writing Paragraphs dictated from. Reader 30 

7. Letter- Writing 30-33 

8. Formal Notes 33 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. VU 



CHAPTER V. The Noun (34-39). 

Review of Principles and General Divisions 34 

1. Words denoting Objects defined 35 

2. Five Exercises in naming Objects 36-37 

3. The Recognition of Nouns, viz: 

(«.) In Given Sentences 38 

(3.) In Selections from Reader 39 



CHAPTER VI. The Verb (40-44)- 

1. Words asserting what Objects do 41-42 

2. Naming of Words denoting the Energies of Objects . . . 42-43 

3. The Recognition of Verbs, viz : 

(^.) In Given Sentences 43-44 

{bS) In Selections from Reader 44 



CHAPTER VII. Adjectives (45-48). 

1. W^ords denoting the Qualities of Objects 45-46 

2. W^ords denoting Qualities defined 47 

3. The Recognition of Adjectives, viz : 

(a.) In Given Sentences 47-48 

{b.') In Selections from Reader 48 



CHAPTER VIII. Words and Syllables (49-51). 

1. Words defined 9 

2. Syllables defined. Exercises 49 

3. Words classed by Syllables. Exercises 50-51 



CHAPTER IX. Letters (52). 

1, Forms of Letters 52 

2. Vowels and Consonants. Exercises 52 



VIU TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER X. Sounds (53-55). 

1. Vowel-sounds and Consonant-sounds 53 

2. Classification of Vowels, viz: 

(«.) Primitive Vowels 54 

(3.) New Vowels 54 

(c.) Diphthongs - . 54-55 

3. Exercises 55 



CHAPTER XI. Quantity of Vowels (56-57). 

1. Long and Short Vowels. Exercises 56 

2. How Long Vowels are noted 57 

3. How Short Vowels are noted. Exercise 57 



CHAPTER XII. Consonants (58-64). 

1. Semi vowels and Aspirates. Exercise 58 

2. Liquids. Exercise -59 

3. Nasals. Exercise 59 

4. Mutes. Exercise 60 

5. Spirants. Exercise ". . 61 

6. Sibilants. Exercise 62 

7. Correlatives. Rules. Exercise 63 

8. Test Exercises for Review 64 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE SEXTEXCE AXD ITS PAKTS. 

1. Recognizing' Objects. 

Let the teacher call attention to the things m the 
school-room. Let her point to the desk and ask — 

Hvow do you know that this desk is here? [^I can see it, 
and I can touch if .~\ Tap the bell. A sound will be heard. 
Take an apple. It may be tasted. A flower may be smelt. 
Now ask such questions as these : What things can you see? 
What things can you hear ? What things can you touch f 
What things can you smell? What things can you taste ? 

\h there anything that you cannot see, hear, touch, taste, or 
smell? Yes. There are things which I can THINK. I can 
THINK things, such as nothing, nobody, something, power, 
truth, wisdom, goodness, ether, the eartJi s axis, etc. 

By what means may we know objects ? \Through our senses^ or 
tfirough our understandi7ig.'\ Hence — 

Definition. — Anything that we can see^ liear^ 
touchy taste^ smelly or tliink^ is called an Object. 

(9) 



10 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise I. 

1^^^ Let the pupil write y as a preparation for the next lesson ^ 
the names of objects , viz : 

1. The names of five objects he can see. 

2. The names of five objects he can hear. 

3. The names of five objects he can touch. 

4. The names of five objects he can taste. 

5. The names of five objects he can smell. 

6. The names of five objects he can think. 

2. Distinguishing' Objects and Words. 

J|@* Let the teacher take a rubber and erase something 
from the blackboard. Ask : What does the rubber do ? 
\^The rubber rubs otit, or erases. '\ Let the pupils write the 
sentence on their slates. After all have written it carefully, 
let the teacher write it on the board, and ask her pupils what 
the crayon does. \_The crayon marks. '\ Let this sentence be 
written as before. 

Now let the teacher ask : Where is the rubber ? Where is 
the crayon ? From such examples and such questions the dif- 
ference between an object and a word may be clearly brought 
out. 

Let the teacher continue this exercise until the distinction 
between an object and a word is distinctly apprehended by 
her class. 

Words relate to objects. In the sentence, Trees grow, both words 
relate to trees. So in any group of words. The various elements of 
an object are pressed out into words. Hence — 

Definition. — A word is what is spoken or written 
to denote an object, or to tell something about it. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

Exercise II. 

Let the pupil write ten words and point out what they 
denote, 

3. The Sentence. 

il@* Let the teacher write on the board such sentences as these : 

Henry writes. Charles laughs. Mary plays. George 
reads. William jumps. Birds sing, 

Ji®" These words denote objects, and tell something about 
them. 

The pupil should analyze these sentences according to the 
following — 

Model. — '* Henry writes.*' In these words something is 
said of Henry, It is said that he writes. 

Each sentence should be analyzed in this way. 
We think objects as acting y as in some condition ^ but when we 
come to formulate our thought in language, we expand it into two or 
more words. A Sentence is a thought expressed in words. The object 
supplies the matter, but the mind thinks it into form. Hence — 

Definition. — A Sentence is a word or combination 
of words in which somethmg is said of an object. 

Exercise III. 

1. Say something oi tree, horse , bird, wagon , knife, 

2. Of what objects can you say grows, sings, neighs, rat- 
tles, cuts, 

4. The Parts of the Sentence. 

jl®^ In every sentence there are two parts, viz : 

1. The word or words denoting the object about 

which something is said. 

2. The word or words expressing what is said of the 

object. 



12 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise IV. 

J|@^ Let the teacher W7'ite upon the blackboard and ask: 

1. Which words denote objects? 

2. Which words say something about objects? 

Birds fly. Squirrels frisk. Rabbits burrow. 

Frogs leap. Eagles soar. Serpents hiss. 

Bears growl. Doves coo. Cattle graze. 

Model. — ''Birds fly." Birds denotes the objects about 
which something is said. Fly expresses what is said of these 
objects. 



5. The Subject. 

The word or words denoting the object about which something is 
said, is called the Subject. Hence — 

Definition. — The Subject is the word or words 
denoting the object about which something is said. 



Exercise V. 

I^^ Let the pupil point out the subjects in the following 
sentences and tell why they are subjects : 

Kites fly. Kittens play. Balls bounce. 

John talks. Sarah sings. Emma cries. 

Model. — '^ Kites fly." Xites is the subject, because this 
word denotes the objects about which something is said. 

I@^ Be careful to associate the word subject with the 
words object about which something is said. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

6. The Predicate. 

The word or the group of words in which something is said about an 
object, is called the Predicate. Hence — 

Definition". — The Predicate is the word or words 
which say something about an object. 



Exercise VI. 

Let the pupil point out the predicates in the following 
sentences : 

George draws. Emile reads. Frank walks. 

James studies. MoUie sings. Maggie plays. 

Model. — '^ George draws.'* Draws is the predicate, be- 
cause this word asserts something about the object, George, 

Be careful to associate the word predicate with the words 
which say something about an object. 

Review Exercise. 

[Note to the Teacher. — The following questions should be writ- 
ten upon the blackboard and kept there, and pupils should be required to 
answer them orally and in writing until they are thoroughly mastered.] 

1. What is an object? Illustrate. 

2. What is a word? Illustrate. 

3. What is a sentence ? Illustrate. 

4. What are the parts of a sentence ? Illustrate. 

5. What is the subject? Illustrate. 

6. What is the predicate? Illustrate. 



14 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PRACTICAL. DRILLS. 

Exercise I. 

Ji@* Copy the following sente7tces, and mark the subject a7id 
predicate by drawing a si?igle line under the subject y and a 
double line under the predicate : 

1. Crows croak. 5. Girls laagh. 9. Horses neigh. 

2. Birds sing. 6. James hides. 10. It snows. 

3. Children romp. 7. Clara sings. 11. We walk. 

4. George skates. 8. Jane dances. 12. You talk. 
Model. — Boys play. 

Note to the Teacher. — Let your pupils prepare their exercises on 
paper, and, after correction, copy them in exercise-books. 

Exercise II. 

JS@* Complete the follozaing sentences , writing them neatly 
on paper, and inarking the subject a7id predicate : 

I reads. 5. Harry 9. Percy 

2. Boys 6 sleeps. 10. Birds 

3 play. 7 runs. 11. Horses 

4. Girls 8 talk. 12 sings. 

Exercise III. 

I^* Form sentences y using the following words as subjects, 
writing them and marking them as before : 

Apples, oranges, melons, houses, cars, bridges, geese, oxen, 
mules, sheep, wagons, horns, toys, dolls. 



FIRST CIRCLE ES" ENGLISH GRA^DIAR. 15 

Exercise IV. 

Form sentences y using the foUowifig words as predi- 
cates, writi?ig them and marking as in Ex. I : 

Yells, crow, whistle^ hiss, run, talk, write, bellow, squeal, 
wave, roll, fly, study, romp, play. 

Exercise V. 

W^ Form sentences, using the foUoTving words only : 

Read, sing, birds, boys, cry, children, swim, fly, kites, 
fishes, hiss, bite, snakes, dogs, chirp, tick, crickets, clocks, 
prance, horses, balk, jump, mules. 

Exercise VI. 

J|@* The subject may consist of two or more words. 
Model. — Three very interesting children came. 



1. The old hollow tree fell. 

2. The beautiful new sled broke. 

3. The grand old ocean roars. 

4. His three pleasant friends left. 

5. My teacher's youngest daughter came. 

6. The beautiful spring flowers wither. 

7. Her pretty new hat ble'w off. 

8. All his good pupils study. 

9. The four daring robbers ran away. 

10. His two thousand peach-trees blossom. 



16 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VII. 



The predicate -may consist of two or 7nore words. 
Model. — The tree bore twenty bushels of apples. 

1. He received three splendid presents. 

2. I bought six new school-books. 

3. Boys love stories about Indians. 

4. Girls are fond of dolls and hoops. 

5. We saw the boys flying their kites. 

6. Ships roam over the wild oceans. 



Exercise VIII. 

Copy and mark the following sentences : 

1. Every good boy studies diligently. 

2. My mother gave me two large apples. 

3. Three gray foxes ran across the fields. 

4. I bought a beautiful new toy. 

5. A very young child was lost in the woods. 

6. The floating ice lodged on the island. 

Model. — ^^A good boy studies diligently." 



A good boy is the subject^ because these words denote the 
object about which something is said. '' Studies diligently'^ 
is the predicate, because these words assert something about 
the object, boy. 

Mark and analyze all the sentences in the same way. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

Exercise IX. 

Copyj mark, and analyze the following se?itences. 
Read an entire sentence, and let pupils write fro?7t dictation : 

1. The monkey is a very curious little animal. 

2. He is exceedingly fond of mischief. 

3. A monkey was once given to a lady as a present. 

4. Monkeys are very apt to imitate people. 

5. This lady had given her little daughter a doll. 

6. One day the monkey undertook to wash it. 

7. At first he rubbed it all over with soap. 

8. Afterwards he rubbed it with a towel. 

9. Thus the dolFs face was entirely spoiled. 

Remark. — The teacher should note the peculiarity of the last four 
sentences, the subject being placed between the parts of the predicate. 



Exercise X. 

As the subject is frequently placed after the predicate, 
or between its parts ^ it is necessary to drill pupils carefully 
upon transposed sentences. These two questioiis should be asked 
and applied with each sentence : What words denote the ob- 
ject about which something is said ? What words assert 
something about the object ? 

1. Mine are the gardens of earth and sea. 

2. The stars themselves have flowers for me. 

3. The defeat of the enemy is certain. 

4. Gold and silver have I none. 

5. Low was our pretty cot. 



18 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. A sacred thing is that old arm-chair. 

7. That beautiful Turkish carpet is new. 

8. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. 

9. Never before did I see her look so pale. 

10. There were about twenty persons present. 

11. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

12. There is a melancholy music in autumn. 

Model. — Thus ebbs and flows the current of her life. 



There is a God. 



M^^Ask: What words constitute the subject? Why? What 
words constitute the predicate ? Why ? 

Exercise XL 

ii@* Mark the subjects and predicates in the following ex- 
tract: 

The lion is from three to four feet high, and from six to 
nine feet long. His strength is very great. By a single 
stroke of his paw he can break the skull of a horse. A large 
lion can drag off an ox. The color of the lion is a yellowish 
red. He roams about in the forests of Asia and Africa, and 
is a terror to man and beast. If the lion is taken young, he 
can be tamed. He will even show marks of kindness to his 
keepers. But it is dangerous folly to get into his power. 

Exercise XH. 

Ji@* The pupil should now be required to select the subjects 
and predicates from sentences i7i the reading lesson. If the 
foregoing drill has been thorough, this will aid him in grasp- 
ing the thought of the selections he reads. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 



CHAPTER II. 

KINDS OF SEXTEIS^CES. 

Let the teacher write the follow mg sentences on the 
blackboard : 

1. The bird sings. The bird may sing. 

2. If the bird sing, he is valuable. 

3. Let the bird sing. 

4. Does the bird sing? 

5. How the bird sings ! 

Ji®" The pupil should now be led to make the following 
inferences : 

1. The words, ''The bird sings,'' ''The bird may sing,'' 

state something as actual or possible. 

2. The words^ "If the bird sing, he is valuable," state some- 

thing as depending on something else. 

3. The words, "Let the bird sing,'* express a command. 

4. The words, ^'Does the bird sing?'* ask a question, 

5. The words, " How the bird sings ! '* express an exc tarna- 

tion. 
W^ Froin this we learn that a sentence by its form may ex- 
press one of five things : 

1. It may state something as actual or possible. 

2. It may state something as depending on something else. 

3. It may state something as commanded. 

4. It may state a question, 

5. It may express emotion. 



20 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There are, therefore, five kinds of sentences, viz : 

1. A sentence which states something as actual or 

possible, is called a Declarative Sentence. 

Examples. 

John writes. John does not write. 

The boy can study. The boy cannot study. 

They may go. They may not go. 

2. A sentence which states something as depending on 

something else, is called a Conditional Sentence. 

Examples. 

If it rain, I cannot come. 

If I were you, I would study diligently. 

If you waitj I will go with you. 

3. A sentence which expresses a command, is called 

an Imperative Sentence. 

Examples. 

John, bring me the book. 
Let the boy go home. 
God bless our native land. 

4. A sentence which asks a question, is called an 

InteiTogative Sentence. 

Examples. 

Will your brother come to-morrow? 
Is the world round like a ball ? 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



21 



5. A sentence which expresses emotion, is called an 
Exclamative Sentence. 

^ Examples. 

How I loved the boy ! 

O that I were a child again ! 

What a wonderful being is man ! 



PRACTICAL DRILLS. 





Exercise I. 




1®" Tell the kind of each 


'of the following sentences : 


I. 


Lambs play. 


2. Do fishes swim? 


3- 


Do lambs play ? 


4. How the horse runs ! 


5- 


How lambs play ! 


6. How green the fields look ! 


7. 


Let the lambs play. 


8. Let him go. 


9- 


If the lambs play, they 
are well. 


10. Come to me, child. 




Exercise II. 



Tell which of the following sentences are Declarative? 
which Conditional? which Imperative? which Exclamative? 
which Interrogative? 



I. 


Can it fly? 


2. 


If he studies, he learns 


3- 

5- 
7. 


Let it go. 
How it spins . 
It is nice. 


4. 
6. 
8. 


We want to skate. 
How they hurry ! 
Will it bite? 


9- 


We can come. 


10. 


Do trees grow ? 


II. 


Let us alone. 


12. 


It is snowing. 



22 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 

Jl®* Mark the subject and predicate, and tell the kind of 
each sentence : 

m 

I. Knowledge is power. 2. If it rain, I shall not go. 

3. Be careful. 4. How the wind blows ! 

5. Can you read this ? 6. The hunter shot a deer. 

7. Is it snowing? 8. Are the deer shy ? 

9. God bless our home ! 10. O that I were young ! 

II. The pen is mighty. 12. Were I you, I should study. 

Model. — Knowledge is power h a Declarative Sentence, 
because these words state what is actual. 

Remark. — In imperative sentences the subject is sometimes wanting. 

Exercise IV. 
Ji@* Give five forms to each sentence in Exercise /. Thus : 

1. Declarative: He is studious. 

2. Conditional: If he be studious, he will improve. 

3. Lnperative : Let him be studious. 

4. Interrogative: Is he studious ? 

5. Exclafnative : How studious he is ! 

Exercise V. 

Jl®" Change the following sentences into sentences of each of 
the other kinds : 

1. The first snow has fallen. 

2. There will be fine sleighing to-morrow. 

3. Is the rainbow a beautiful object ? 

4. What a wonderful structure the mind is ! 

5. Look at the snow-clad mountains. 

6. Study your lessons thoroughly. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

Exercise VI. 

Complete the following sentences^ Diark the subject and 
predicate, and tell their kind : 

I. Do study? 2. Will to-morrow? 

3. How deep the snow ! 4. He problems. 

5. John letters. 6. How the rages! 

7. The snow 8. Had I known it, I 

9. James grammar. 10. lean 

II reads well. 12. The girl 

Remark. — All these exercises should be written on paper, corrected 
in the class, and then carefully copied into exercise-books. 

Exercise VH. 

Ji®* Let the pupil separate the followiyig stanzas into sen- 
tences and tell their kind : 

I. 

The ocean eagle soared 

From his nest by the white wave's foam; 
And the rocking pines of the forest roared, — 

This was their welcome home. 

n. 

There were men with hoary hair 

Amidst that pilgrim band ? 
Why had they come to wither there 

Away from their childhood's land ? 

in. 

There was woman's fearless eye, 

Lit by her deep love's truth ; 
There was manhood's brow serenely high 

And the fiery heart of youth. 



24 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER III. 
PUNCTUATION. 

The three points used at the end of sentences are — 

1. The (.) Period. 

2. The (?) Interrogation-Point. 

3. The (!) Exclamation-Point. 

Exercise I. 

1^^ Jlef the pupils practice maki?ig and 7iai7iing these points 
until they can do so with facility . 

1 . The Use of the Period. 

The Period (.) must be placed — 

1. After Declarative sentences. 

2. After Conditional sentences. 

3. After Imperative sentences. 

4. After Abbreviations; as, The Rev. Dr. B. F. Dodge. 

5. After Headings; as, Lesson I. (See above.) 

Exercise II. 

Ji®" Write 071 paper, a7id punctuate the followi7tg : 

I Be kind 2 Birds sing 3 If he call, I shall go 4 Dr 
J H L Hugo 5 J M Wayland, Esq 6 Hon HEW Lewis 
7 2 lbs 6 oz 8 pwt 9 grs 8 He paid 3 cts apiece 9 The 
snow-storm 10 Decimals 11 James McCosh, DD LL D 
12 Maj Gen J H S Block U S A St Louis, Mo 



FIRST CIKCLE IN ENGLISH GRA:WDIAR. 25 

2. The Use of the Interrogation-Point. 

The laterrogation-Point (?) must be placed — 

1. After Interrogative sentences. 

2. After words expressing questions. 

Exercise III. 

i&^ The pupil should write aiid punctuate the following : 

2 Will he come 2 Does it rain 3 How do you do 4 
What is one-fourth of 20 of 1 2 of 28 of 40 5 What is one-fifth 
of 436798 10 1117 6 Does he study 7 You think I 
did not see you, eh 8 What is it 9 Where are your flashes 
of merriment your gambols your songs your gibes 10 At 10 
cents a pound what cost 8 lbs of sugar 5 lbs 7 lbs 12 lbs 25 lbs. 

3. The Use of the Exclamation-Point. 

The Exclamation-Point (!) must be placed — 

1. After Exclamative sentences. 

2. After Exclamative words. 

Exercise IV. 

I How good he is 2 Alas alas what have I done 3 Fie 
on him 4 Ah me how happy I'll be 5 Charge Chester 
charge 6 Oh that I could find him 7 Woe worth the chase 
8 How perfect 9 How straight 10 What a fine view 11 
How gracefully the kite rises 12 Ho trumpets sound a war- 
note. 



26 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise V. 

' Place the proper point after each of the following sen- 
tences, and tell why it should be used : 

1. The boy sings 7. Does the boy sing 

2. Let the boy sing 8. The horse neighs 

3. Does the horse neigh 9. How the horse neighs 

4. Birds fly 10. Do birds fly 

5. How birds fly 11. Let the birds fly 

6. Can birds fly 12. Why do birds fly 



Exercise VI. 
Let the teacher dictate the following sentences for punctu- 



ation : 



Fritz, Why, what is that falling out of the bread Gold O 

father gold 
Father. Do not touch it That money is not ours 
Fritz. Whose is it, then Gold O father 
Father, I do not know whose it can be we must inquire 

Run to the baker's Quick, my son 
Fritz. But, Father, we are so poor Did you not buy the 

loaf 

Exercise VH. 



Let the teacher dictate paragraphs from the reading 
lesson for the pupils to punctuate. 

Exercise VHI. 

I®* Let the teacher write on the board a short selection with- 
out a7ty points except commas, and require pupils to copy and 
punctuate it. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

' No capitals should be used unless a definite rule is given. 
The rules in general use are these : 

1. Begin the first word of each sentence with a capital. 

2. Begin the words denoting an object described or defined 

with capitals. 

3. Begin with a capital the name of every person, place, 

country, section of country, or particular object. 

Exercise I. 
J^* Correct and write on paper the following : 

I. The boy skates. 2. An elementary Sound is the 
simplest Sound of the language. 3. The west is Large. 
4. st louis, mo. 5. w. r. mateer. 6. the park. 7. the new 
bridge is A Splendid Structure. 8. The united states of 
america. i. The new merchants' exchange. 10. the south 
Is Great. 11. great britain. 12. the german empire. 



The following additional rules for capitals should be 
observed : 

4. The words I and O should always be in capitals. 

5. Begin the first word of every line of poetry with a cap- 

ital. 

6. Begin with a capital all names of the Supreme Being. 

7. Begin with a capital the names of the months and of 

the days of the week. 



28 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise II. 

Jl^* Correct and write on paper the following : 

I. there is A god 2. He Came on tuesday, June 2. 3 
shall i come On Wednesday 4. you will have a holiday on 
thursday. 5. what a boy 6. the lord is my shepherd. 7. 
new york, monday, december i. 

8. twinkle, twinkle, little star ; 

how i wonder what you are 
up above the World so high 
like a Diamond in the sky '~~ 

Exercise III. 
Copy and correct the following : 

The Grey Squirrel's Fleet. 

I. 

but then did each wondrous creature show 

his cunning and Bravery ; 
with a piece of pine-bark in his mouth 

unto the stream came he, 

II. 

and boldly his Little bark he Launched, 

without the least Delay ; 
his bushy tail was his upright sail, 

and he merrily Steered away. 

HI. 
never was there a Lovelier sight 

than the grey squirrel's fleet; 
and with anxious eyes i watched to see 

what fortune it would meet. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 



IV. 

soon had they reached the rough mid-stream, 

and ever and anon, 
i grieved to behold some small bark wrecked 

and its little Steersman gone. 

V. 

but the main fleet Stoutly held across ; 

i saw Them leap to shore ; 
they entered the Woods with a Cry of joy, 

for their perilous march was o'er. 

Exercise IV. 

Dictate the following as an exercise in punctuation and 
capitals : 

1. the spring months are march, april and may 

2. he can speak italian, french and german 

3. the andes are on the western coast of south america 

4. bunker hill monument is near boston. 

6. the winter months are december, January and feb- 

ruary 

7. we write on tuesday and thursday 

8. what has become of the mohegans the iriquois and the 

mohawks 

9. the Pyrenees form the boundary between france and 

Spain 

10. the amazon is the largest river in South america 

11. There lies in the florida strait a rock called the double- 

headed shot keys 



30 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise V. 

' Let the teacher dictate sentences containing words begin- 
ning with capitals for pupils to write. 

Remark. — Making lists of rivers, mountains, seas, etc., is a good 
exercise. 

Exercise VI. 

|@^ Let the teacher dictate paragraphs from the reading les- 
son for pupils to write y capitalize^ and punctuate. 

Remark. — Be careful not to select paragraphs containing long sen- 
tences. 

LETTER-WRITING. 

In teaching a child to write a letter, much careful drill is 
needed. Six things require attention, viz : 

1. The Heading. 

Remark i. — The heading contains the place and date. If written 
from a city, the number and street should be given in one line, and the 
name of the city and the date in another. Thus : 

7/77 North Twenty-fifth Street^ 
St. Louis^ Af)7Hl 28^ 1880. 

Remark 2. — The heading occupies the right upper corner of the 
page on which it is written, beginning near the middle of the page, and 
not too near the top. 

2. The Salutation. 

Remark i. — The salutation is written on the left, beginning on the 
line below the heading, and consists of the title and name, with the post- 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAISniAR. 31 

office address of the person to whom it is written. Each line should 
begin farther to the right. Thus : 

Prof. F. A. March, 
Easton, Pa. 

My dear Sir : 

Remark 2. — Strangers are addressed as Sir^ Madam, Rev. Sir, etc. ; 
acquaintances as Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc. ; and friends as My dear 
Sir, My dear Madam, Aly dear John, etc. 

3. The Contents of the Letter. 

Remark. — If the address is short, begin the letter at its end, on the 
line below ; but, if long, begin on the same line. 

4. The Subscription. 

Remark. — The subscription should begin near the middle of the 
last line of the letter. In business letters use Yotirs truly. Yours re- 
spectfully, but in letters of friendship use Yours si^icerely. Yours affec' 
tionately. In writing to relati\^es, put your with your relationship. 
Thus: Your affectio7iate son, Your affectionate sister, etc. Thus: 

Tours very truly, 

T, R, Vickroy. 

5. The Folding of the Letter. 

Remark. — A sheet of w^/'^-paper is generally folded one-third its 
length, the edges being kept even in folding. A sheet of /^//^r-paper is 
generally folded one-half its length, and then folded again in the same 
way that a sheet of note-paper is folded. Jg@^ Put the edge last folded 
into the envelope first. 



32 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAIVOIAR. 



6. The Superscription. 

Remark. — The superscription should begin at the left, a little below 
the middle of the envelope. The first line should contain the name and 
title ; the second line the nuinber and street, if addressed to a person 
residing in a city, if not, simply the name of the post-ojffice town; the 
third line should contain the name of the city or county ; and the fourth 
the name of the State or country. The stamp should occupy the right 
upper corner. Each line of the superscription should begin farther to- 
ward the right, so as to make it look symmetrical. Thus : 

SUPERSCRIPTION. 



Mr. H, W. yameson^ 

212 Pine Street^ 

St, Louis^ 



Mo. 



Exercise I. 

Let the teacher require pupils to W7'ite, foldy and ad- 
dress different styles of letters y until they can do it well. 

Exercise II. 

"^^ Put the following into letter form, separating into sen- 
tences, pu7tctuati7ig , and putting capitals where they belong : 

St louis, tuesday, february 6, i88o. 
my Dear sir : 

i Take pleasure In Informing you of my safe Arrival in this 

City my Journey hither Was pleasant i left london, eng on 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

the 6th of January and Came to new york on the 20th from 
new york i Went to albany by the hudson river railroad and 
thence to niagara falls on the new york central. At niagara 
i crossed the queen's bridge on the grand trunk railroad and, 
crossing canada, i came to detroit, mich i crossed the de- 
troit river on a ferry boat took the michigan central railroad 
and came to Chicago, ills after a day or two's stay in Chicago 
i took the c & a r r and came to this city i am stopping at 
the lindell hotel, on Washington avenue, and shall stay Here 
a Few days the west impresses me with its Grandeur st 
louis seems to have Great Possibilities and Whoever lives 50 
years may see a city on the mississippi as large as the one 
now on the thames. 

with kind regards to Friends 
i am, as ever, 

yours truly, 

Filirex. 

FORMAL NOTES. 

Remark. — Formal notes are generally invitations and replies to 
invitations to attend social gatherings. The note begins with the name 
of the person or persons sending it, and the place and date are put at the 
left on the line below. Thus : 

Mr, and Mi^s, Fairfax request the -pleasure 
of Miss Broxvniiig' s company^ on Thui^sday 
next,, at foicr o'' clock, 

1907 Lucas Place, April 30. 

Exercise. 

Jl@^ Let the teacher require pupils to write notes of invitct- 
tion, and tiotes accepting and declining invitations, 

3 



34 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE NOU]Sr. 

In Chapter I. we learned that — 

1. Any thing which we can see^ hear, touch, taste, smell, 

or think, is called an Object. 

2. What is spoken or written to denote an object, or to 

tell something about it, is called a Word. 

3. A word or a combination of words in which some- 

thing is said of an object, is called a Sentence 

4. The word or the group of words denoting the object 

about which something is said, is called the Subject. 

5. The word or the group of words which asserts some- 

thing about the object, is called the Predicate. 

Remark. — We have thus far treated the sentence as the unit of speech^ 
but as the sentence is composed of words, and a word is the smallest part 
of a sentence which in itself is significant, we shall proceed to classify 
words according to what they express. Some words are significant by 
themselves, and are thus capable of being the bases of the parts of the 
sentence, while other words are significant only as they are associated 
with these basic w^ords. Hence the basic words may be called Princi- 
pals [/2^^/(?;2 a/ words], the others Accessories [relational ^ordis]. In 
this circle we shall treat only of the Principals. 

As the principal words in a sentence either denote objects 
or attribute something to objects, we shall consider — 

1. Words denoting objects. 

2. Words asserting something about objects. 

3. Words denoting the qualities of objects. 

In this chapter we shall treat only of words denoting ob- 
jects themselves. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRA50IAR. 35 

1. "Words Denoting Objects. 

Exercise I. 

Let the teacher write these sentences on the black-board : 

The sun shines. The bell rings. 

Honey is sweet. Steel is hard. 

Putty is soft. The flower is fragrant. 

Friendship is delightful. Truth is mighty. 

"^S^ Now let such questions as these be asked : 

What shines ? How do you know ? \_Sight.'\ 
What rings? How do you know? {Hearing.'^ 
What is fragrant? How do you know? [5;;/^//.] 
What is sweet? How do you know? \^Taste.~\ 
What is hard ? Soft ? How do you know ? \^Touchr\ 
What is delightful? How do you know? S^ThoughtA 
How do we know objects? [^Through our senses or through 
our understanding. ^ 

. What are such words as snji, bell, honey, steel, putty, flowers, 
friendship, and truth called? \Stich ivords are usually called 
Nouns.'] Hence — 

Definition. — A word which denotes an object is 
called a Noun. 

Remark. — The word rioutt is derived from the Latin word noinen, 
which, in that language, has the same meaning as the English word name. 
Noun and itame, however, are not synonymous. If they were, we could 
say, What is your noiLu ? (name.) The word 7iou7i is used technically 
to denote one of the eight classes into which words are divided. Hence, 
A notin is a part of speech. A word used to desig7tate an object itself 
IS CALLED [not is] a Noun. 



36 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The Naming of Objects. 

Exercise II. 
M^^ I^e^ the pupil mention and write the names of — 

1. Objects in the school-room. 

2. Objects on the play-ground. 

3. Objects in a parlor. 

4. Objects in a kitchen. 

5. Objects in a garden. 

6. Objects in the fields or parks. 

7. Objects along the streets or roads. 

8. Objects on or in a river. 

9. Objects in the sky. 
10. Objects at a fair. 

Remark. — All answers should be complete sentences. In the writ- 
ten preparation the words enumerating the objects should be separated 
by a comma (,). Thus : In the school-room there are boys, girls ^ desks, 
books, and maps. 

Exercise III. 
H®" Let the pupil 7nention and write the names of — 

1. Animals having two legs. 

2. Animals having four legs. 

3. Animals having six legs. 

4. Animals having many legs. 

5. Animals which migrate. 

6. Animals which live on land. 

7. Animals which live in the water. 

8. Animals which are domesticated. 

9. Animals which are wild. 

10. Animals which live on flesh. 

Remark. — Examine each pupil's preparation as to spelling, capitals, 
"^Xi^ punctuation. Correct expression is the end to be gained. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

Exercise IV, 
Let the pupil mention and write the najnes of — 

1. Objects made of wood or stone. 

2. Objects made of iron or brass. 

3. Objects made of leather or hair. 

4. Objects made of wool or yarn. 

5. Objects made of cotton or silk. 

6. Objects made of lead or tin. 

7. Objects made of gold or silver. 

8. Objects made of marble or clay. 

Exercise V. 

Let the pupil mention aiid write the names of — 

1. Things which are eatable. 

2. Things which are drinkable. 

3. Things which grow in the tropics. 

4. Things which are brought from South America. 

5. Things which are brought from the Indies. 

6. Things which are dug out of the ground. 

Exercise VI. 

Let the pupil mentio7i and write the names of — 

1. The tools which a blacksmith uses. 

2. The tools which a carpenter uses. 

3. The tools which a stonemason uses. 

4. The tools which a bricklayer uses. 

5. The tools which a tinsmith uses. 



38 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. The implements which a farmer uses. 

7. The tools which a shoemaker uses. 

8. The instruments which a dentist uses. 

9. The instruments which a surgeon uses. 
10. The instruments which an architect uses. 



3. The Recognition of Nouns. 

Exercise I. 

Let the teacher write the following sentences on the 
black-hoard^ and require her pupils to tell which words are 
nou?is : 

1. The boy gave his sister an apple and a pear. 

2. Girls love dolls and ropes. 

3. The most useful metals are copper, zinc, iron, lead, and 

tin. 

4. Gold is used for making watch-chains and watch-cases. 

5. The camel is of great use to man. 

6. Arthur's new sled was a present from his aunt. 

7. The picture represents a boy lying on the banks of a 

stream and throwing seeds into the water. 

8. When a man's heart is full of love, it gives him a kind 

eye, a kind voice, and a kind hand. 

Note to the Teacher. — Let one pupil mark [draw a single liite 
beneat/i] all the nouns in the first sentence, while the other pupils of the 
class observe, correct mistakes, and supply omissions. Proceed in the 
same v ay wilh each of the other sentences. The question, How do you 
knozv this word to be a notui ? should be asked until every noun in this 
exercise is distinctly recognized. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAJMMAR. 39 

Exercise II. 

Let the teacher assigji a short paragraph in the reader 
as an exercise from which all the iiouns are to be selected. 

Note to the Teacher. — The pupils should write lists of the nouns 
they recognize, which lists should be carefully examined at the recita- 
tion. 

Exercise III. 

Jl®^ Let the teacher assig?t for the next lessoji the following 
paragraph of the reading lesson selected. 

Note to the Teacher. — In the recitation, let the teacher read the 
words slowly, clause by clause, and require her pupils to write the 
nouns. The same lesson may also be recited orally, calling upon one 
pupil to mention the nouns in the first line, another those in the second, 
and so on, while the class observe, correct mistakes, and supply omis- 
sions. 

Exercise IV. 

Jl®* Let the next paragraph of the readi7ig lesson selected 
constitute the following exercise. 

Note TO the Teacher. — In the recitation, let the pupil designated 
by the teacher read the first sentence, and point out the nouns, telling 
why the word is a noun. If his work is not perfect, let some other pupil 
take the same sentence, and so on until all the nouns, and the nouns only, 
are selected. Each sentence should be gone over in the same way. 

These exercises should be continued until each member of the class 
can point out the nouns readily. This ivill require time and patience, 
but one thing thoroughly learned is so much REAL PROGRESS, 
while skimming over work has no educational value. 

Let the teacher ask with each lesson : What is a noun ? 
What does it designate ?. How do you know the object denoted 
by this noun f What 7iouns in this lesson denote thi?igs see7i f 
heard? touched? tasted? smelt? thought? 



40 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAJVIMAR. 



CHAPTER VI. 
THE VERB. 

1. Words Asserting what Objects do. 

Exercise I. 

Let the teacher write the following sentences on the 
black-board : 

I. John writes. 2. Trees grow. 

3. Clara whispers. 4. Rivers flow. 

5. Mary sings. 6. Honey tastes sweet. 

7. Henry studies. 8. The coat wears well. 



Let the teacher now ask : What does John do ? Clara ? 
Mary ? Henry ? What do trees do ? [Trees grow, — that is, 
they can take moisture from the ground and gas from the air, 
and change them into wood, bark, leaves, etc.] What do 
rivers do? [Rivers ^<?z£/, — that is^ the drops of water move 
onward while other drops take their place.] What does 
honey do? [Honey tastes sweet, — that is, it has the power 
of producing a pleasant taste ] What does the coat do? 
[The coat wears well, — that is, the coat has great power to 
resist the forces that tend to destroy it.] Hence, such words 
as writes, whispers, sings, studies, grow, flow, tastes, and 
wears assert what objects do. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

Note to the Teacher. — As it is somewhat difficult to make pupils 
understand how such words as fall, rise, sit, or lies, express the ener- 
gies of objects, it is well to consider the following facts: 

All bodies are endowed with a certain tension which makes them seek 
other bodies. This power is called the attraction of gravitation. Leaves 
fall2indi balls roll, because there is no force to prevent their movement. 
Smoke rises and cork floats, because air and water have a greater 
density, and consequently act with an intenser force, and since smoke 
and cork have the power to resist this opposing force, they are lifted by 
the reaction in the opposite direction. The book lies and the statue 
stands, because the desk and the earth have arrested their motion, and, 
by the force of attraction, hold them in a stationary condition. The old 
man sits, because he has surrendered himself to the influence of this force. 
The child sleeps^ because the action of its senses is suspended. 



Exercise II. 
H&^Lef the following sentences be written on the black-board: 

I. Leaves fall 2. The book lies on the desk. 

3. Bills roll. 4. The statue stands in the park. 

5. Smoke rises. 6. The child sleeps in its crib. 

7. Cork floats. 8. The old man sits in his chair. 

Note to the Teacher. — Bodies may act involuntarily as well as 
voluntarily. When a body cannot control its own action, it acts involun- 
tarily ; but when its action is controlled by the voluntary act of another 
body, it is said to act mechanically. When a body acts mechanically, it 
is used as a means or instruutent. The voluntary agent acts for him- 
self, and uses other objects to advance his ends. Thus, thijtking mind 
creates words and sciences, and endows them ^^ith the power of per- 
forming certain functions. It then thinks them into agents, and contem- 
plates them as putting forth energies. Hence, nouns, verbs, adjectives, 
etc., are represented as doing certain things, when, in fact, they are only 
the instruments through which the acts are performed. As all such ob- 
jects must be either at rest or in motion, and must be either agents or 
instruments, it is evident that all bodies put forth energies. 



42 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 

et the following sentences be written on the black board: 

1. Nouns denote objects, and verbs assert. 

2. Grammar teaches correct speech. 

3. Mathematics treats of quantity. 

4. Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. 

Let the teacher ask how these objects act, 

2. The Naming" of Words which Assert what Ob- 
jects do. 

Exercise IV. 

"^^Let the following sentences be written on the black-board : 

1. John plays. 4. Eudora reads. 

2. Ava sings. 5. Frank recites. 

3. Hattie studies. 6. Walter walks. 

Ji^* The words plays ^ sings , studies, reads y recites, and 
walks tell what John, Ava, Hattie, Eudora, Frank, and 
Walter do. 

As the acts of objects are the first things to arrest our atten- 
tion, and, in Latin and Greek, words denoting these manifesta- 
tions may constitute complete sentences, the words denoting 
the energies of objects are called Verbs. Hence — 

Definition. — A Avord which asserts what an object 
does, is called a Verb. 

Remark. — The noun and verb may now be contrasted. Thus : The 
noun denotes the object itself; the verb tells something about it. The 
noun brings objects before the mind ; the verb asserts the mode in which 
they exist or act. The noun presents objects as entireties ; the verb 
presents them as energies ox powers. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

Exercise V. 

Let each pupil write sentences expressing five KCT'^i proper 
to the followifig objects : 

A horse, a bird, Washington, ships, John, a farmer, squir- 
rels, the teacher, a carpenter, Mary. 

Model. — A horse walks, trots j gallops, paces, diwd pra7ices. 

Remark. — Examine and correct each pupil's preparation. 

Exercise VI. 



Let each pupil write sentences expressing five states 
proper to each of the followi^ig objects : 

A boy, books, trees. Napoleon, William, a knife, a ball, 
mother, a car, an ox. 

Model. — A boy may lie, sit, stand, sleep, or watch. 

Note to the Teacher. — Be careful lest your pupils use adjectives 
to express the state of the given object. 

3. The Recognition of Verbs. 

Exercise I. 
the following sentences be written 07i the black-board : 

Those who visit the city and go to the parks, are sur- 
prised to see so many birds flying about. 

Mabel was in the kitchen when she heard her father call 
her. 

She had climbed into a chair and taken a vase from the 
mantel, which had slipped from her hands and fallen 
to the floor, where it was broken to pieces. 



44 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Mabel was alarmed at what she had done. 

5. She ran out of the room and shut the door, hoping that 

no one would know she had been there. 

Model. — The boy tried to climb the tree, but fell. 

Note to the Teacher. — Let one pupil mark [draw a double line 
beneath) all the verbs in the first sentence, while the others obsei've, cor- 
7'ect mistakes y and supply omissions. Let each sentence be treated in 
the same way. The question, How do you know this word to be a verb ? 
should be repeatedly asked. 

Exercise II. 

I®" Let the pupil 77iark all the verbs and nouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. A lie is anything said or done to deceive. 

2. He is a coward who is afraid to speak the truth. 

3. Do you know the child who never told a lie? 

4. Priceless gem ! The pearl of Truth ! 
Brightest ornament of youth ! 

Seek to wear it in thy crown ; 
Then, if all the world should frown, 
Thou hast won a glorious prize 
That will guide thee to the skies. 

Exercise HI. 

Ji®^ het the teacher take the same selection she used for nouns, 
and assign a paragraph from which all the verbs are ,to be se- 
lected. 

Note to the Teacher. — The pupils should write lists of the verbs 
they recognize, which lists should be carefully examined at the recita- 
tion. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 45 



CHAPTER VII. 
AI>JECTIVES. 

1. Words Denoting" the Qualities of Objects. 

Exercise I. 



'Let the teacher take an apple and di^'ect her pipils to 
examine it, after which let her ask such questions as these: 

What is the size of this apple? {^large, smalL] What is 
its color? [red, yellow, russet, green."] What is its shape? 
\roimd, oblo7ig, flattened,] What is its consistency ? \Jiard, 
soft, mellow, smooth.] What is its taste? \sweet, sour, bitter, 
insipid.] How can you tell its size, color, and shape? \jight.] 
How can you tell its consistency ? \Jouch,] How can you tell 
its flavor? \Jaste,] Can you name any other qualities of the 
apple? Name them. What is the use of such words as red, 
round, hard, sweet, and large ? These words show differences 
by which we may distinguish one object from another. 

Exercise II. 

Ji@^ Let the teacher take a piece of crayon, and showing it to 
her class, let her ask — 

What is the color of this crayon? Have you seen crayons 
of different colors? What is its size? Mention five things 
larger than the cra3^on ; five things smaller ; five things of 
about the same size. What is its shape? What things have 



46 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the same shape? What is its consistency? Mention five 
things which are harder than the crayon j five that are softer;, 
five of about the same consistency. Can you break It ? What 
other things can be broken ? Of what use is it ? 

Let the qualities thus elicited be embodied in a sentence. 
Thus : This piece of crayon is white, etc. 



Exercise III. 

Let such sentences as these he written on the black-board : 



1. Winter is near, distant, past. 

2. William is anxious, quiet, boisterous, stubborn. 

3. Mabel is healthy, sick, convalescent, dead. 

4. Helen is joyous, despondent, pleased, angry. 

5. The fields look barren, fresh, green, desolate. 

6. Pero was a splendid large Newfoundland dog, with a 

white spot under his neck. 

7. He had a beautiful head and large brown eyes full of 

courage. 

8. Go aw^y from the light, little miller, 

'T will singe your beautiful wings ; 
I know it is bright, and a glorious sight \ 
But it isn't quite right, little miller, 

To play with such dangerous things. 



What is said of winter ? William ? Mabel ? Helen ? 
fields? 

Remark. — Some words denote^ but do not assert the mode in which 
an object exists. If the state expressed be internal it is called condi- 
tion ; but if it be external, it is Q,2X\QdL position ar situation. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

2. The Naming of Words Denoting' Qualities. 

Exercise I. 
J|@" Let the folloiuing seritences he writte?i 07i the black-board: 

1. Large y red apples grew on a graceful tree. 

2. Pretty little girls were playing in a beaiitifulhdXX, 

3. The teacher gave all the diligent y^m^\\^ valuable gifts. 

4. The morning was quiet j serene, and bright. 

5. \A2.\i2s peevish, impatient ^ and revengeful, 

M&^ Let these sentences be examined. Two things may be 
brought OHt, viz: 

1. The italicized words are all joined to nouns. 

2. The italicized words express the quality or condition of 

the objects denoted by the nouns. 

Words which are thus joined to nouns to show the quality or condition 
of objects, are called Adjectives. Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a noun to distin- 
guish one object from another, is called an Adjective. 

Remark. — Adjectives answer the questions, Of what kind? In 
what conditio7i ? 

3. The RecogTiition of Adjectives. 
Exercise I. 

Jl^* Letthefollowi?ig sentences be written on the black-board: 

1. Gold is of a bright, yellow color, and is very heavy. 

2. Iron is quite hard, and is malleable and ductile. 

3. I saw a sly little squirrel, with nimble feet. 

4. A beautiful butterfly, careless and gay, is flitting from 

flower to flower. 



48 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. We should be as grateful and joyous as birds. 

Remark. — Let the pupil point out the adjectives as they pointed out 
the nouns and verbs. Adjectives may be marked according to the fol- 
lowing — 

Model. — Large apples grow on small trees. 
-A. = .iL 

Exercise II. 

"^^ Let the first paragraph of the piece formerly assigned 
constitute the next exercise. 

Remark. — Let the pupils select the adjectives as they selected the 
nouns and verbs. 

Exercise III. 

"^^ Let the next paragraph constitute the next lesson. 

Remark. — These exercises should be continued until all the adjec» 
tives are selected without mistake. 

Exercise IV. 

"^^ Let the pupil now select all the nouns, verbs , aiid adjec* 
tives from selections assigned. 

Ji@" Review questions should frequently be asked, such as, 
What is a noun? a verb? an adjective? What is the differ- 
ence between a noun and an adjective? What is the differ- 
ence between a e^^r/5 and zxv adjective? What adjectives in 
the sentence denote qualities seen? heard? touched? tasted? 
smelt? thought? 

Remark. — The noun, the verb, and the adjective are called Notion 
Words, 



FIRST CIRC J-E IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 



CHAPTER VIII. 

« 

WORDS AND SYLLABIFIES. 

1. Words. 

A word designates a notion or a relation, and may be either 
audible or visible, — that is, a word may be either spoken or 
written, 

A Written Word consists of syllables and letters. 

A Spoken Word consists of syllables and elementary sounds. 

Remark. — As we have thus far treated the sentence as the unit of 
discourse and found that the subject and predicate were proximate 
elements, while notms, verbs, and adjectives were ultimate elements, 
so we shall now treat the word as the unit of discourse, while syllables 
will constitute its proximate elements, and letters or sounds, its ulti- 
mate elements. 

2. Syllables. 

A Spoken Syllable is that part of a word which may be 
uttered by a single impulse of the voice, as im-pulse, ut-tered, 
move-nient, 

A Written Syllable consists of the letters which designate 
the elementary sounds of a spoken syllable, together with 
those letters which are no longer significant, as ihought-ful, 
thor-ough-ly, in which u, g, and li no longer represent ele- 
mentary sounds. 

Exercise I. 

"^^ Let the following words he separated into uttered and 
written syllables : 

Talents angel bright, if wanting worth, are shining instru- 

4 



60 FIKST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ments in false ambition's hand, to finish faults illustrious and 
give renown to infamy. 

Model. — Tal-ents consists of two syllables, because two 
impulses of voice are requisite for its utterance. 

Exercise II. 

Jl®^ Let suitable words be selected froin the reading lesson 
and written on the board for drill. 

3. Words Classed by Syllables. 

As words may consist of one, two, three or more syllables, 
so they are named according to the number of syllables they 
contain. 

1. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable, as 

strength^ thought, pique, thanks^ a, of, /. 

2. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable, as 

author^ grammar, ado, gracious, 

3. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable, as 

fortunate, thankfully , cheerfully, exercise. 

4. A word of more than three syllables is called a Poly- 

syllable, as constitution, fneritorious, syllabification, 
incomp rehensibility . 

Remark. — A word of more than three syllables is sometimes called 
a polysyllable. 

Exercise I. 

"^^ Let the pupil make four lists of the following words ^ 
putting all the monosyllables in one list, the dissyllables i?i 
another, the trisyllables in a third, and the polysyllables 
in a fourth. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

There are wonderful plants far over the sea, 
But what are they all to the Christmas tree ? 
Does the oak bear candies, the palm-tree skates? 
But sugar-plums, trumpets, doll-babies, slates, 
Picture-books, elephants, soldiers, cows. 
All grow at once on the Chistmas-tree boughs. 

Remark. — Such words as sugar-plums^ doll-babies, d^nd picture^ 
books are called compound words. Why ? 

Better than gold is the sweet repose 

Of the sons of toil, when their labors close ; 

Better than gold is the poor man's sleep. 

And the balm that drops on his slumbers deep ; 

Better than gold is a thinking mind, 

That in realms of thought and books can find 

A treasure surpassing Australian ore, 

And live with the great and good of yore. 

Ay, call it holy ground, 

The soil where first they trod ! 
They have left unstained what there they found. 

Freedom to worship God. 

Exercise II. 
the pupil write ten words of each kind. 

Exercise III. 

^Let the pupil make lists of the words in some paragraph 
selected from the reading lesson. 



52 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER IX. 

LETTERS. 

The visible elements of words are called Letters, 
The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters, which 
have three forms, viz. : 

1. Small letters (lower case), as a, b, c, d, e, f, etc. 

2. Capitals, as A, B, C, D, E, F, etc. 

3. Small caps., as a, b, c, d, e, f, etc. 

Remark i. — Small caps, are used in the body of the names of persons 
and of the first word in reading lessons. (For examples, see Readers.^ 

Remark 2. — Inclined letters are called Italics ; vertical letters, Roman. 

Remark 3. — As degrees of emphasis are expressed by Italics, small 
CAPS., and CAPITALS, it is usual in writing to draw one line under a 
word intended to be in Italics, two lines under words intended to be in 
SMALL CAPS., and three lines under words intended to be in CAPITALS. 

The letters a^ e, i, o, u, Wy and y are sometimes Vowels ; 
all the others are called Consonants ; but e, i, 0, u, w, and y 
are also sometimes consonants. 

Exercise I. 

"^^ Let the pupil tell the form of the type in the following 
words : also which letters are vowels and which consona?tts : 

Thomas Jefferson. Lord Angus, thou hast LIED. 
Go, ring the bells and fire the guns, 

And fling the starry banners out ; 
Shout FREEDOM till your lisping ones 

Give back their cradle shout. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 



CHAPTER X. 

S O U N^ I> s. 

The audible elements of words are called Elementary 
Sounds. 

The elementary sounds are divided into two classes, viz : 

I. Vowel-sounds. 
II. Consonant-sounds. 

A Vowel is a sound produced from the vibration of the 
vocal chords, and not interrupted in the vocal canal. 

A Consonant is a sound produced by the vibration of the 
vocal chords, but interrupted entirely or partially in its 
course through the vocal canal. 

Note to the Teacher. — Explain as accurately as possible the nature 
and function of the vocal chords. Make the pupils put their fingers on 
their throats and feel the vibration as they talk. Explain also what is 
meant by vocal canal and how the different vowels are produced by the 
lengthening and shortening, widening and narrowing of it. Show them 
that in saying i the lips are drawn back while the larynx rises, making the 
canal as short as possible, while the opposite takes place in pronouncing 
u (in rude). Make the pupils tell how they make the difference between 
ga and ka ; da and ta ; ba and/<2, etc. (Cf. Max Miiller's Science of 
Language, 2nd Series, Lecture IIL, pp. 106-174.) 

For convenience of treatment, the vowels may be divided 
into three classes^ viz. : 

1. Primitive vowels. 

2. New vowels. 

3. Diphthongs. 



54 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Primitive vowels are heard in the words me, fate, 
arm, hole, and rtade. 

The new vowels are heard in the words hairy, or air, fall, 
and earth. 

The diphthongs are heard in the words pine, boy, house, 
and mule. 

Remark. — The sounds of the vowels as heard in the words male, 
mealy 7Jiilej 7?iole, mule, are called Name-sounds. 

The vowels are shown in the following diagrams : 
I. Primitive Vowels. 



Long e, as in me. 
Long a, as in fate, 
Italian a, as in arm. 
Long o, as in hole. 
Close ii, as in rule. 




II. New Vowels. 



ti 



a 



/\ Flat a, as in air. 

/ \ Broad a, as in all. 

L \ ^ Tilde e, as in her. 



III. Proper and Improper Diphthongs. 

Oi (oy) and ou (ow) are regarded as proper diphthongs, 
while long a, long i, long o, and long u, are regarded as im- 
proper diphthongs. A proper diphthong consists of two 
short vowels, while an improper diphthong consists of a long 
vowel and a slight vowel or vanish. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

Oi, or oy consists of o in not and i in pin, as in oil^ boy, 

Ou, or ow consists of a in ask and u in bush; as in house, 
how. 

Long a consists of e in error and i in verily, as in vein, 
they. 

Long I consists of a in arm and i in verily^ as in pine, 
aisle. 

Long o consists of o in coat and the second u in usury, as 
in soul, bowL 

Long u consists of i in verily and u in rule, as in cube, few^ 
Europe, 

Exercise I. 



Let the pupil select the vowel-sounds fro7n the follow- 
ing words and tell like the vowel in what word it sounds : 

Meed, meat, mete, bier, seize, pique, key, tame, deal, vain, 
lief, bought, taught, stall, psalm, calm, mourn, hall, tour, 
balm, dote, toad, food, laugh, loose, sauce, routine, earth, 
fur, tooth, lath, path, hoop, truth, vine, joy, house, wine, 
mouse, coil, dew^ mule. 

Exercise IL 

M&^ Let the pupil pronounce the following words and give 
the vowel-sound in each : 

There's a good time coming, boys, 

A good time coming: 
The pen shall supersede the sword. 
And Right, not Might, shall be the lord. 

In the good time coming. 
Worth, not Birth, shall rule mankind. 

And be acknowledged stronger; 
The proper impulse has been given ; 

Wait a little longer. 



56 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XI. 

QUANTITY OF VOWELS. 

The Primitive and New vowels may be long or short, as 
heard in the following words : 

Long vowels : me, fate, air, arm, all, earth, home, rude. 
Short vowels: pit, met, at, ask, not, up, wholly, put. 

Exercise I. 

I®* Let the teacher utter the followi7tg wordsy and let the 
pupil give the correspondijtg lo7ig vowel-sounds : 

At, get, bring, fit, net, mat, cart, what, put, up, foot, dot, 
jet, pat, chart, slit, wert, dirt, flirt, fret, wet, pull, oats. 

Note. — Pronounce the word, and then utter the vowel-sound which 
it contains. 

Exercise II. 

Jl@^ Let the teacher utter the following words , and let the 
pupil give the corresponding short vowel-sounds : 

Mate, mete, mite, mote, moot, air, mirth, gall, kite, treat, 
calm, grow, crude, seize, field, wrath, path, grace, yield. 

Exercise III. 

'^^ Let the teacher utter the following words, and let the 
pupil give the correspondiitg long or short vowel-sounds : 
Oh ! a wonderful stream is the river of Time 
As it runs through the realm of tears, 



FIEST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

With a faultless rhythm and a musical rhyme 
And a broader sweep and a surge sublime, 
As it blends in the ocean of years ! 

I. Vowels denote long sounds under the following circum- 
stances : 

1. A vowel is long and represents its name-sound when 

it ends an accented syllable, as sd-cred, no-body, 
fd-vor-ite. 

2. A vowel is long generally when it is followed by a, <?, 

/, or o in the same syllable, 2.^ fear ^ deer, field, faily 
door, people. 

3. A vowel is long when followed by any consonant 

(except v) and silent e, as fate, mote, mile, mute, 
live, dove. 

Remark. — Before v vowels vary, as dove, drove, shove, hove. 

4. All diphthongs are long, diS pine, oil, house, mule. 

II. Vowels denote short sounds under the following cir- 
cumstances : 

1. A vowel is short generally when it is followed by one 

or more consonants in the same syllable^ as 7nan, 
rat J miss. 

2. A vowel is short or slight and has its primitive sound 

in all unaccented syllables, as spoliation, infidelity, 
inflammatory. 

Exercise. 

Jl^ Let the teacher select paragraphs from the reading lesson 
and require her pupils to distinguish the length of the vowels, 
and tell why they are long or short. 



58 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR. 



CHAPTER XII, 

COXSOIS^AISTTS. 

There are twenty-four consonant-sounds recognized in Eng- 
lish speech. 

I. The Semi-Vowels w and y. 

1. The sound oi w (we). 

To produce this sound, utter the sound of oo (close u) in 
good so as to blend it with the following vowel, as oo-ez=zwe ; 
oo-d-s =: was ; oo-oo-l z= wool. 

2. The consonant sound of j/ (ye). 

To produce this sound, utter the sound of e in feet so as to 
blend it with the following vowel^ as e-e-s =i yes ; e-e-l-d 
z= yield j e-o-n-d-e-r^L yonder. 

Remark. — As w and y are coalescents blending with a following 
vowel, they are made by starting from the final position of u or e. 

II. The Aspirate h. 

3. The sound of h (he). 

Adjust the organs to the position for forming the following 
vowel, or semi-vowel, and then blend the breath with the 
vowel, or semi-vowel sound, as h-ow=i\io^ \ A-arm z=i hsirm ; 
h-w-a-t z=z what ; /i-yu zm hew. 

Remark. — The h (wh) before w is a blowing with both lips, while 
the h in hew is made in the throat. 



first circle in english grammar. 59 

Exercise. 

"^^ Let each pupil select all the sounds of "w, y, and h. from 
the following words, and tell how they are produced : 

Wine, yeast, white, hole, whole, why, wheat, went, yester 
day, your, youngs wrong, him, hour, brilliant, union, vine- 
yard, vignette, soldier. 

III. The Liquids 1 and r. 

4. The sound of /. 

To produce /, bring the tip of the tongue in contact with 
the upper gum and make a resonant sound. 

5. The sound of r. 

To produce this sound, depress the back part of the tongue 
slightly, then direct the breath against the back part of the 
roof of the mouth and make a resonant sound. 

Remark. — The sound of trilled r is made by causing the tongue to 
vibrate against the inner gum of the upper teeth. It is heard after th in 
words like through, thrusts, thrill. 

Exercise. 

M^^Let the pupil select the liquids from the following words, 
and tell how they are produced. 

Epistle, for, rough, ring, wrong, link, error, little, bottle, 
candle, rabble, florid, horrid, lyric, thrush, throat, thrice, 
three, 

IV. The Nasals m, n, ng. 

6. The sound of m. 

To produce this sound, close the lips, open the nasal pas- 
sages, and make a resonant sound through the nose. 



60 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. The sound of n. 

To produce this sound, place the forepart of the tongue 
against the inside of the upper teeth, open the nasal passages, 
and make a resonant sound through the nose. 

Remark. — N is smooth except when it comes before g, k, or ch hard, 
as in anchor. In angel n is smooth, because g is soft Hke j. 

8. The sound of ng (ing). 

To produce this sound, open the mouth, apply the back 
part of the tongue to the soft palate, open the nasal passages, 
and make a resonant sound through the nose. 

Exercise. 

Jl®* Let the pupil select and sound all the nasals in the fol- 
low iiig words : 

Bring, think, anger, near, mingle, frank, sink, sank, angle, 
angel, mamma, single, song, anchor, ant-hill. 

V. The Mutes b, p ; d, t; j, ch (chee) ; g, c. 

9. The sound of ^. 

To produce this sound, compress the edges of the lips, 
close the nasal passages, and make a resonant sound. 

10. The sound of p. 

To produce this sound, bring the edges of the lips into firm 
contact, compress the breath, and suddenly open the lips. 

11. The sound of d. 

To produce this sound, place the forepart of the tongue 
firmly against the inside of the upper teeth, compress the 
breath, and make a resonant sound. 

12. The sound of/. 

To produce this sound, place the forepart of the tongue 
firmly against the inside of the upper teeth, and compress the 
breath until it removes part of the obstructing edges. 



FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

13. The sound of/. 

To produce this sound, place a part of the tongue near 
the tip against the roof of the mouthy and make a resonant 
sound. 

14. The sound oi ch (chee). 

To produce this sound, place a part of the tongue near the 
tip against the roof of the mouth, compress the breath, and 
then suddenly withdraw the tongue, and emit the breath vio- 
lently. 

15. The sound of ^. 

To produce this sound, elevate the back pctrt of the tongue 
until it touches the soft palate, compress the breath, and make 
a resonant sound. 

16. The sound of ^ (^^y)* 

To produce this sound, elevate the back part of the tongue 
until it touches the soft palate, compress the breath, and then 
allow it to escape suddenly. 

Exercise. 

t&^Lef the pupil select all the mutes froin the following 
words, and tell how they are produced : 

Blind, grudge, turn, trust, deed, mind, cat, dog, frog, feet, 
dust, risk, that, horse, house, fists. 

VI. The Spirants v, f; th (thee), th (ith). 

17. The sound of v. 

To produce this sound, place the lower lip against the 
edges of the upper front teeth, and make a resonant sound. 

18. The sound of/. 

To produce this sound, place the lower lip against the 
edges of the upper front teeth, and force the breath through 
the aperture. 



62 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

19. The sound of flat th (thee). 

To produce this sound, place the tip of the tongue against 
the inner surface of the upper front teeth, and make a reso- 
nant sound. 

20. The sound of sharp th (ith). 

To produce this sound, place the tip of the tongue against 
the inner surface of the upper front teeth, and then force the 
breath through the aperture. 

Exercise. 

Jl®* Let the pupil select the spwants from the following 
words, and tell how they are produced : 

Bath, them, thought, thorn, think, cipher, phantom, of, 
off, Stephen, phthisis, diphthong. 

VII. The Sibilants z, s; zh (zhee), sh (ish). 

21. The sound of smooth z. 

To produce this sound, round the tip of the tongue, and 
bring it near the upper front teeth, then press its sides against 
the upper side teeth, and make a resonant sound. 

22. The sound of sharp s. 

To produce this sound, round the tip of the tongue and 
bring it near the upper front teeth, then press its sides against 
the upper side teeth, and force the breath through the aper- 
ture. 

23. The sound of impure z^ as in vision (zhee). 

To prodiice this sound, round the tip of the tongue, bring 
it near the upper front teeth, draw the tongue inward, raise 
it in the middle, and then make a resonant sound. 

24. The sound of sh (ish). 

To produce this sound, draw the tongue inward from its 
position in making s, raise it in the middle, and then force 
the breath through the aperture. 



FIKST CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRA^IMAR. 63 

CORRELATIYES. 

Sixteen of the consonant sounds are correlative, — that is, 
each sonaiit has a corresponding surd. 

Sonants: b d j g v th z zh 

Surds : p t ch c f th s sh 

JIS^ As correlative sounds are ifiterchafiged in pronunciation^ 
the following rules must be observed : 

Rule I. — When a sonant follows a surd, or a surd follows 
a sonant in the same syllable, the following consonant is 
changed into its corresponding correlative, as Thanked i'^y pro- 
nounced thankt ; ripped is pronounced ript. 

Remark. — S final has the sound ofz, when it follows a sonant or 
forms a syllable with e, as boxes (pro. BOXEZ), brushes (pro. brushez), 
ribs (pro. ribz). 

Rule II. — S between two vowels, or a sonant and a vowel, 
has the sound of s; as, s in house is changed into z in houses ; 
Absolved is pronounced abzolved ; venison is pronounced ven- 
izon. 

Remark. — According to the same principle, /is changed to v before 
es in the plural of beef, alf, elf, half knife, haf, leafy self, shelf 
sheaf, thief, wife, wolf, staff, and wharf. 

Rule III. — Th (ith) at the end of nouns, excepting j'^?///^ 
and truth, becomes sonant before s in the plural, as Th (ith) in 
path becomes th (thee) in paths. 

Exercise. 

"^^ Let the teacher apply these rules to words selected from 
the readifig lesson. 



64 FIRST CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



TEST EXERCISES FOR REVIEW. 

"^^ Let the pupil tell the following things about each sen- 
tence in this exercise : 

I. Subject and predicate. 
II. Kind of sentence. 

III. Rules for Punctuation. 

IV. Rules for Capitals. 

V. Which words are Nouns. 
VI. Which words are Verbs. 
VII. Which words are Adjectives. 
VIII. Syllables, and kinds according to syllables. 
IX. Forms and kinds of letters. 
X. Names and kinds of sounds. 

Exercise. 

1. Washington was the first President of the U. S. 

2. Niagara Falls is a mighty cataract. 

3. Shall we gather strength by irresolution ? 

4. How vast is the power of the human mind ! 

5. I heard him tell the boy to stop talking. 

6. The patriarch saw the Bow of Promise rise above the 

world. 

7. King Francis was a hearty king and loved a royal sport. 

8. Be thy last days serene and peaceful. 

9. To arms 1 To arms ! TO ARMS ! they cry. 

10. Stand ! the ground 's your own^ my braves ! 

11. If Wisdom's ways you'd wisely seek, 

Five things observe with care ; 
Cy whom you speak, to whom you speak, 
And how, and when, and where. 



SECOND CIRCLE 



IK 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE 



FIFTH YEAE OE GEADE. 



BY 

T. R. VICEROY, A.M., 

Author of "An Elementaiy Grammar of the English Language," etc. 



Reduce every subject to its elements — one difficulty at a time is 
enough for a child, — Pestalozzi. 



ST. LOUIS: 
G. I. JONES AND COJMPANY. 

1880. 



Entered according- to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by 

T. R. VICKROY, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, 



PREFACE. 



The following pages contain what is designed to be a 
SECOND year's WORK in English Grammar. It is for Fifth 
Grade pupils. 

In preparing a text-book so graded as to carry the pupil 
forward by easy steps, it is difficult to strike the golden mean 
between too much and too little. If too little is given, the 
pupil becomes indolent; and if too much is given, he is dis- 
couraged. He should be neither starved nor crammed^ but 
should have just the quantity for healthy growth. The author 
thinks that the book does not contain too much matter for a 
year's instruction, especially as this is the second year of the 
course. However, the live teacher can easily adapt it to the 
wants of any particular class of pupils. 

Grammar should be made a practical study i7i the use of 
la?iguage — not a mere study about language. The pupil 
should therefore be required to express his thoughts in correct 
language, orally and in writing. Hence the many exercises 
which the pupil is required to prepare. 

As to the method of the book, it is scarcely necessary to 
say that it is inductive and synthetic. This method is suited 
to pupils in this grade. As they become able to interpret the 
meaning of language, the transition will be gradually made to 
the deductive and the analytic. 



4 PREFACE. 

The three steps by which the author has endeavored to 
unfold the matter of each chapter are the following : 

1. The matter is presented, named and defined. 

2. The pupil applies what he learns in written exercises. 

3. The pupil identifies what he has learned with similar 
elements in the language of others. 

1. Through examples the various elements of a subject are 
presented and the pupil is exercised until he grasps them. 
They are then named and defined. Thus the pupil is 
enabled to grasp singly the elements which enter into a def- 
inition. Hence the definition, which is a compact summary 
of the elements learned, should be carefully committed to 
memory. 

2. The application of the principles learned to the compo- 
sition of sentences, is designed to fix them indelibly in the 
pupil's mind. If we try to use a particular kind of word or a 
special form correctly in a written exercise, we shall first have 
to know it pretty thoroughly. This is what the exercises in 
the use of words is designed to accompfish. 

3. The recognition, in the language of others, of any kind 
of word or special form, is the first step in entering the field 
of literature from which such vast treasures of knowledge may 
be gleaned. As the act of knowing is a process of identifying 
that which before was unknown with something which we 
already know, the exercises under this head must result in 
extending the pupil's knowledge. Thus what we teach the 
pupil becomes an instrument through which he may acquire 
knowledge for himself. This is the secret of mental growth. 

As a teacher, the author offers this little book to the public 
as his effort to make grammatical study interesting and profit- 
able. 

St. Louis, May, 1880, 



TABLE OF OOIsTTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. Proper Nouns (9-13). 

PAGE 

1. Words denoting definite objects 9-1 1 

2. Exercises in using proper nouns 12-13 

3. Exercises in recognizing proper nouns 13 



CHAPTER II. Common Nouns (14-16). 

1. Words denoting objects indefinitely 14 

2. Exercises in using common nouns 15 

3. Exercises in recognizing common nouns 16 



CHAPTER III. Participial Nouns (17-18). 

1. Acts and states regarded as objects 17 

a. Two forms of participial nouns 17 

2. Exercises in using participial nouns 18 

3. Exercises in recognizing participial nouns 18 



CHAPTER IV. Number (19-25). 

1. Objects thought as one or many i9 

a. Objects thought as single things i9 

b. Singular and plural 19 

2. Exercises in the pluralizing of words 20-25 

a. General Rule 20 

b. Euphonic changes 21-22 

c. Special Rules 22-25 

I. Symbols. 2. Irregular Plurals. 3. Double Plu- 
rals. 4. Peculiar Forms without s. 5. Peculiar 
Forms with s. 6. Compound Nouns. 7. Mis- 
cellaneous Words 22-25 

3. Exercises in recognizing number 25 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER V. Gender (26-34). 

PAGE 

1. The sex of objects 26-27 

A. — External characteristics 26 

I. Male objects. 2. Female objects. 3. Objects 

without sex 26 

B. — Internal characteristics 27 

2. The gender of Nouns 28 

a.. Masculine, b. Feminine, c. Neuter 28 

3. Exercises in recognizing gender 29-30 

4. Corresponding genders 3^-34 

a. Royal titles, b. Titles of Nobility, c. Titles of respect, 
d. Legal titles, e. Family relations, f. Social rela- 
tions, g. Mythic and religious titles, h. Animals. 

i. Miscellaneous 31-34 



CHAPTER VI. Personal Pronouns (35-38). 

1. Words denoting objects without naming them 35-3^ 

a. First person, b. Second person, c. Third person . . 37 

2. Accidents of personal pronouns 37 

a. Table of personal pronouns 37 

3. Exercises in using personal pronouns 38 

4. Exercises in recognizing personal pronouns 38 



CHAPTER VII. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs (39-40). 

1. Kinds of words expressing energies 39 

a. Intransitive, b. Transitive 39 

2. Exercises in using verbs 40 

3. Exercises in recognizing verbs 40 



CHAPTER VIII. Objective Elements (41-44). 

1. Words denoting the objects of acts 41-42 

A. — Direct object 41-42 

The object of cognition, b. The passive object. 
c. The object of effect, d. The object of kin- 
dred meaning 42 

B. — Indirect object 42 

2. Exercises in using objective elements 43 

3. Exercises in recognizing objective elements 44 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER IX. Limiting Adjectives (45-47). 

PAGE 

1. Words determining the application of nouns 45 

a. Qualifying Adjectives, b. Proper Adjectives, c. Ad- 
jective Pronouns 45 

A. — Words showing which one or which ones 46 

B. — Words showing how many 46 

2. Exercises in using limiting adjectives ; 46-47 

3. Exercises in recognizing limiting adjectives 47 



CHAPTER X. Adjective Elements (48-54). 

1. Words used adjectively 48-52 

A. — Possessives. Inferences 48-50 

a. Rule for forming the possessive case 50 

b. Model for writing possessives 50 

B. — Appositives. Inferences 51 

C. — Nouns denoting qualities 52 

2. Exercises in using adjective elements 53 

a. Relative position of adjective elements 54 

3. Exercises in recognizing adjective elements 54 



CHAPTER XL Adverbs (55-61). 

1. Words limiting verbs 55-56 

a. Circumstantial Adverbs 56 

b. Intensive Adverbs 56 

A. — Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 57-58 

B. — Formation of the Comparative and Superlative . . . 58-59 

I. Rule for Adjectives. 2. Irregular Adjectives. 3. 

Adverbs compared 59 

C. — Position of Adverbs 60 

2. Exercises in using adverbs 60 

3. Exercises in recognizing adverbs 61 



CHAPTER XII. Adverbial Elements (61-64). 

1. Words used adverbially 61-63 

A. — Nouns of Quantity 62 

B. — Participial Nouns 63 

2. Exercises in using adverbial elements . . 63 

3. Exercises in recognizing adverbial elements 64 



TO THE TEACHEE. 



As this Circle covers the work of one grade, it is important 
that teachers should carry out its method faithfully. 

One exercise is enough for a lesson. 

The teacher, in the absence of a better method, might adopt 
one like the following : 

1. Require the lesson to be prepared at home. 

2. At the recitation, examine each pupil's preparation as to 
quantity and quality and credit him accordingly. As there 
are generally ten sentences to be written, on the scale of loo 
per cent, each perfect sentence should count lo per cent. 
From this, i per cent, should be deducted for each mistake 
in spellings punctuation and capitals. Five per cent, should be 
deducted for a mistake in applying the principle involved in 
the exercise. 

3. Each pupil should have a blank book, to be kept by the 
teacher^ into which all the corrected exercises should be copied 
at stated times. This would promote a habit of neatness and 
accuracy. 

4. The book gives matter and method — in the main, it tells 
teacher and pupil what to do and how to do it, while at the 
same time, the live teacher will find ample opportunity, in 
connection with each lesson, to present other material and 
original illustrations. 

5. Questions in review should be asked in connection with 
each exercise. 

I^^In conclusion the author wishes to say that the book is 
made from the teacher's point of view, and is constructed out 
of material acquired in actual teaching. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 
PKOPER NOUNS. 



A Sentence is a word or a combination of words in which 
something is said of an object. 

Every sentence consists of two parts, viz. : 

1. The Subject, that is, the word or the group of words 
denoting the object about which something is said. 

2. The Predicate, that is, the word or the group of words 
which asserts something about the object. 

Exercise. 

ly Let the teacher dictate the following story ^ and let the 
class write it and mark the subject and predicate in each sen- 
tence * 

THE LION AND THE MOUSE. 

A weary lion lay down to rest under an oak. While he slept, a number 
of mice ran over his back and waked him. The lion angrily put his foot 
on one of them, and was about to kill the tiny creature. The mouse 
begged the lion to spare its life. Finally the lion let the trembling creature 
go. Soon after this, the lion was caught in a net set for him. He strug- 
gled to free himself, but in vain. At this juncture, the same little mouse 
approached him. The mouse had come to relieve the lion. He gnawed 
the strong cords asunder and thus released the king of beasts. 

Note to Teacher. — Let the pupils exchange papers, and compare 
the spelling, capitals 2iXid ptincttcation. 



'Let each pupil make written lists of the nouns, verbs a7id 
adjectives in the above exercise. 



10 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise I. 



' Let the following sente72ces be written on the blackboard : 

1. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. 

2. Columbus discovered America. 

3. John Howard Payne wrote Home, Sweet Home. 

4. The Saragossa Sea is in the Atlantic Ocean. 

5. Berlin is the Capital of the German Empire. 

6. John Milton wrote Samson Agonistes. 

7. The Volga rises in the Valdai Hills. 

8. The Illinois and St. Louis Bridge spans the Mississippi 
River. 

1^^ Let the pupil select all the names fro7n these sente7ices,and 
tell which name persons ? places ? fiatural divisions ? noted 
writings ? pro7ninent objects ? 

Exercise II. 



'Let some pupil copy the following sentences 07i the black- 
board: 

1. The Bon Homme Richard was commanded by John 
Paul Jones. 

2. The Rocky Mountains are in North America. 

3. Mississippi means Father of Waters. 

4. Bunker Hill Monument is near Boston. 

5. The West is growing in influence. 

6. Marshall McMahon is President of the French Repubhc. 

7. Shakespeare wrote the Merry Wives of Windsor. 

8. The First Presbyterian Church is in Lucas Place. 

^^ Let the pupil select all the na7nes, a7id tell what objects 
they name. 

Model. — The Bo7t Homme Richard was the name of a ship. 

1^* From these exercises we may i7ifer that the 7ia7ne of a 
definite object consists of a word or a group of words. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

1. Words Denoting Definite Objects. 

I. The subject may be a word or a group of words denoting 
a definite object, viz. : 

1. The subject may denote a person; as, Bayard Taylor^ 
Lord Byron ^ U. S. Grants William Cullen Bryant^ 
George William Curtis, 

2. The subject may denote a place or any natural division 
of land or water ; as, St. Louis ^ London^ New York^ 
Fra7ikfort'07i'the-Main^ North Cape, the River Rhi7ie, 

3. The subject may denote a political division; as, The 

United States of America, France, Germany, Great 
Britain, The Argentine Republic, Missouri, 

4. The subject may denote a Corporation or Firm; as. 
The City of St. Louis, The First National Bank of 
Philadelphia, Messrs, Wm. Barr dr' Co, 

5. The subject may denote a Section of Country; as, 
The East, the South, New Erigland, the Gulf States, 
the Northwest. 

6. The subject may denote a prominent individual ob- 
ject; as, T^he Bridge, the Merchants^ -Exchange, the 
Central High School, Shaw's Garden, Lafayette Park. 

^^ Such words as the above are called Proper Nouns. 
Hence — 

Definitiois". — A word or a group of words wliicli 
of itself names a definite object, is called a Proper 
Noun. 

RULES FOR CAPITALS. 

1. Begin every proper noun with a capital. 

2. Begin each significant part of a proper noun with a cap- 
ital. 

Remark. — This rule covers all noted events in history, as well as all 
titles of subjects. 



12 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2, BTaming Definite Objects. 
Exercise I. 



' Let each pupil write ten sentences containing the names 
of persons. 

Model. — Charles Francis Adams, a son of John Quincy 
Adams, was one of the Geneva Arbitrators. 

Remark. — Pupils should be required to describe actual personages, 
either living or historical. 

Exercise II. 



' Let each pupil write sentences describing ten important 
cities. 

Model. — New York, situated on Manhattan Island, is the 
largest city in America. It was named after James II, who 
was then known as the Duke of York. 

Remark. — To prepare these exercises will require investigation. The 
teacher should direct the pupil so that he may find suitable information. 
Let pupils consult their geographies and find out all they can about cities. 

Exercise III. 

t^^ Let each pupil write sentences describing ten countries or 
States. 

Model. — Pennsylvania was called the Keystone State, be- 
cause it occupied a middle place between the States north and 
east of it and those south of it. If the thirteen original States 
are arranged in the form of an arch, she will occupy the cen- 
tral position. 

Exercise IV. 

1^^ Let each pupil write sentences describing ten sections of 
country. 

Model. — New England was settled by Pilgrims and Puri- 
tans from England. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

Exercise V. 

* Let each pupil write sentences describing ten noted cor- 
f orations or firms. 

Model.— The Union Pacific Railroad Company bound the 
East to the West with bands of iron. 

Exercise VI. 

^^ Let each pupil write sentences describing ten noted ob- 
jects. 

Model. — The Colossus of Rhodes was accounted one of 
the Seven Wonders of the World. 

3. The Recognition of Proper Nouns. 

Exercise I. 

^^ Let the pupil select the proper nou7is from the following 
extract : 

Heralds swiftly transmitted the war message. It was never 
suffered to droop till it had been borne North, and South, and 
East, and West. The summons hurried from New Hamp- 
shire over the Green Mountains to New York. In another 
day it reached Philadelphia ; thence it was carried to Balti- 
more and Annapohs. The message crossed the Potomac 
near Mount Vernon, and it did not halt till it reached 
Williamsburg. It traversed the Dismal Swamp to Nanse- 
mond, along the route of the first emigrants to North Carolina. 

Exercise II. 

I^^ Let the pupil select all the proper nouns from his reading 
lesson. 



14 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER II. 
I COMMON NOUNS. 

1. Words Denoting Indefinite Objects. 

II. The subject may be a word denoting objects indefinitely, 

viz. : 

1. The subject may denote a kind of material substance 
without reference to definite limits; as, wood^ stone, 
clay, marble, iron, gold, mud, dust, silver, brick, gravel, 
sand, water, air. 

Remark. — Words denoting the kind of substance are called Material 
Nouns . 

2. The subject may denote a group of objects or a col- 
lection of things ; as, class, army, baggage, forest, news, 
greens, tribe, swarm. 

Remark. — Words denoting collections or groups are called Collective 
Nouns. 

3. The subject may denote a quality thought to be a sep- 
arate object ; as, sweetness, mercy, truth, wisdom, 
frie?ids/iip, freedom, acidity, confidence, strength. 

Remark. — Words denoting attributes thought to be separate entities 
are called Abstract Nouns. 

4. The subject may denote any one or all of several sim- 
ilar objects ; as, man, woman, child, book, dog, horse, 
animal. 

Remark. — Words which denote classes of objects, and require the 
addition of another word to make them signify definite objects, are called 
Common Nouns . 

Hence — 

Dp:finition. — A word wMch notes objects in- 
definitely, is called a Common Noun. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

2. Naming Indefinite Objects. 

Exercise I. 

' Let the pupil write sentences describing ten material 
substa?ices. 

Model. — Gold is occasionally found in large masses. 
There is now in the Imperial Cabinet at St. Petersburgh a 
lump weighing eighty pounds. 

Exercise II. 

1^* Let the pupil write sentences describing ten groups or col- 
lections. 

Model. — A forest consists of an extensive tract of land 
covered with trees and undergrowth. 

Exercise III. 

^^ Let the pupil write sentences contai7ii?ig the names of 
qualities regarded as separate e?itities. 

Model. — Transpare?icy is that quality of bodies which 
enables one to see through them. 

Exercise IV. 

l^^ Let the pupil write ten sentences usi?ig words denoting 
classes of objects. 

Model. — A birdy^ a two-legged, winged, feathered animal. 
Exercise V. 

^^ Let the pupil write a composition of ten sentences about 
some familiar object. 



16 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Recognition of Proper and Common Nouns. 

Exercise I. 



Let the pupil select the nouns from the following sen- 
te7ices and tell which are proper nouns a?id which are com- 
mon nouns : 

The friends of Reason and the guides of Youth, 
Whose language breathed the eloquence of Truth; 
Whose life, beyond preceptive wisdom, taught 
The great in conduct and the pure in thought; 
These now by memory to Fame consigned, 
Still speak and act, the models of mankind. 

Trust me, Clara Vere de Vere, 

From yon blue heavens above us blent, 
The gardener Adam and his wife 

Smile at the claims of long descent. 
Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 

'Tis only noble to be good ; 
Kind hearts are more than coronets. 

And simple faith than Norman blood. 

Exercise II. 

ly Let the pupil select all the nouns from the following exs 
tract and tell their kind : 

O, Pericles ! in vain the feast is spread : 
To mirth and joy the afflicted soul is dead. 
The billows of the deep-resounding sea 
Burst o'er our heads, and drown our revelry ; 
Grief swells our veins with pangs unfelt before; 
But Jove's high clemency reserves in store 
All-suffering patience for his people's cure : 
The best of healing balms is— TO ENDURE. 

Exercise III. 

1^ Let the teacher require the pupil to select all the nouns 
from the reading lesson and tell their kind. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17 

CHAPTER III. 
PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 

1. Acts or States Regarded as Objects. 

III. The subject may denote the doing of an act or the 
existing of a state regarded as a separate entity. 

EXAMPLES. 

Digging potatoes is hard work. 

To learn to read requires much labor. 

Writing letters is a useful exercise. 

The work of forming the orator consists in observing and 
correcting his daily manners. 

The words in Italics are called Participial Nouns, Such 
words are therefore forms of the verb used substantively ; that 
is, the attribute which they express is regarded as having sep- 
arate existence. Hence — 

DEFiisriTioi^. — A word which expresses an act or 
state as a separate entity, is called a Participial 
Noun. 

Remark. — Participial Nouns have two forms, viz. : 

1. The form in ing, which denotes the doing of an act 
or the existing of a state ; as, langlwig, coughing^ si?ig- 
ing^ being, becoming, 

2. The form preceded by the particle to, which ex- 
presses an act or state indefinitely; as, to laugh, to 
cough, to sing. 

Suggestion. — As a ** word is a sound significant, of which no part is of 
itself significant, ' ' and the particle to before the verb has no meaning of itself, 
it should constitute a part of the following word, and be connected to it by a 
hyphen. Thus: to-read, to-sing, to-write. This would prevent ambiguity. 

2 



18 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Use of Participial Nouns. 
Exercise I. 



' Let the pupil write ten sentences containing participial 
nouns ending in ing. 

Model. — Singing and dancing are expressive of joy. 

Exercise II. 

1^^ Let the pupil write ten sentences co7itai?ting participial 
nouns with to prefixed. 

Model. — To hear well is an important part of the art of 
conversation. 

3. The Recognition of Participial Nouns. 

Exercise I. 

ly Let the pupil select the participial nouns from the follow* 
ing sentences : 

1. There is a difference between pushing out the hand 
and moving it in flowing circles. 

2. The love of knowledge comes with reading. 

3. There is pleasure in looking at the clouds. 

4. To be or not to be, is the question. 

5. He sat watching the clouds and thinking of the past. 

6. To be loved makes not to love again. 

7. True knowledge consists in knowing things. 

8. It is more ditflcult to keep than to acquire wealth. 

Exercise II. 

^^ Let the pupil select the participial nouns from his reading 
lessons. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

CHAPTER IV. 
NUMBER. 

1. Objects are One or Many. 

When objects have a marked individuaUty, and are dissim- 
ilar, they are thought as single things. But when objects are 
ahke, the mind groups them together, and notes them by a 
single term. This natural unity and plurality of objects gives 
rise to number in grammar. 

The following kinds of objects are thought as single things : 

1. All material substances; as, gold^ dust, molasses, silver, 

2. The names of the arts and sciences; as, music, paint- 
ing, mathematics, optics. 

3. Pure numbers ; as, one, two, three. 

Remark. — Pure numbers represent one unit or one collection of 
units, and hence are singular ; as, Thirty is a number, 

4. The names of qualities or actions; as, brightness, 
writing, 

5. All proper nouns. 

6. The word news. 

When a word refers to similar objects, it usually has two 
forms, one to denote a single object, and another to denote 
two or more objects. The form which is used when a word 
refers to one object, is called the Singular Number. The 
form which is used when two or more objects are brought 
before the mind, is called the Plural Number. 

The process of changing the form of a word to show that 
it refers to more than one object, is called pluralizing. 

Remark. — Most nouns, pronouns, verbs, and the definitives this and 
that may be pluralized. 



20 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. The Pluralizing of Words. 
Exercise I. 

Let the teacher write the following sentences on the 

blackboard : 





Singular. 




Plural 


I. 


This girl sings. 


2. 


These girls sing. 


3- 


That boy runs. 


4- 


Those boys run. 


5- 


This bird flies. 


6. 


These birds fly. 


7- 


That car goes. 


8. 


Those cars go. 


9- 


This judge judges. 


ID. 


These judges judge. 



By examining these sentences, we find that the plural of 
nouns and the singular of verbs expressing present time is 
expressed by suffixing s with certain euphonic changes. 

Hence we infer — 



GENERAL RULE. 



The plural of most nouns and the singular of verbs ex- 
pressing present time is formed by suffixing s. 

Exercise IL 



Let the pupil change the following sentences into their 



^yiiXidX form : 

I. This tree grows. 
3. This horse trots. 
5. The bird soars. 
7. The ball rolls. 
9. A child creeps. 
Model. — These trees grow. 



2. That rose blooms. 
4. That girl plays. 
6. The girl sews. 
8. The cat jumps. 
10. A rat gnaws. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 



21 



Let the pupil change the following sentences into their 



singular /^r/;^. 




I. Those cats mew. 


2. These books wear out. 


3. The apples rot. 


4. Those grapes decay. 


5. Those eagles scream. 


6. These bayonets gleam. 


7. These waters roar. 


8. These boys write. 


9. Those corks float. 


10. These pears ripen. 


Exercise IV. 



^Let the pupil change the number form of the following 
sente7ices : 

I. The clock ticks. 2. That boat glides. 

3. Those leaves fall. 4. The kite descends. 

5. Cataracts roar. 6. The boys read. 

7. This plant withers. 8. That egg breaks. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 

E is inserted before s in four cases, viz. : 
I. With a change of the final vowel. 
II. With a change of the final consonant. 
III. Without any change. 
IV. After j, ch, z, s, sh, and x, forming a separate syllable. 

I. When a noun or verb ends in y preceded by a conso- 
nant, change y to i before suffixing es ; as, That fly flies; 
Those flies fly, 

II. Sixteen nouns ending in the sound of f, change f to 
v, and suffix es for the plural, viz. : Beef, calf elf half knife, 
life, loaf leaf, sheaf self shelf, staff, thief, wife, wolf and 
wharf ; as, calf, calves / leaf, leaves. 



22 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

III. Nouns and verbs ending in /, o^ or u, preceded by a 
consonant, usually take e before s / as, The gnu goes ; The 

GNUES go. 

IV. When a noun or verb ends in the sound oi j=idge, ch^ 
s^=.ss^ ce or se^ z, sh^ or x^ the e forms a separate syllable with 
s; as, Brushy brushes; box^ boxes. 

Exercise V. 

1^^ Let the pupil write sentences using the following words in 
the plural : 

Church, brush, bush, box, judge, license, cry, watch, con- 
science, crush. 

Model. — There are many churches in St. Louis. 

Exercise VI. 

1^^ Let the pupil write sentences using the following words in 
the singular : 

Heroes, go, ladies, scratch, geographies, houses, browse, 
lounge, topazes, hiss. 

Model. — Calico is a kind of cotton cloth. 

Exercise VII. 
1^ Let the pupil write sentences using the words in No. II 
in the plural. 

Model. — Leaves have their time to fall. 

SPECIAL RULES FOR NOUNS. 

1. The Pluralizing of Symbols. 

Letters, marks, signs, figures and symbols are pluralized by 
suffixing 's; as. Make your m!% plainer ; I have no :s {periods). 

Exercise VIII. 
^" Let the pupil write sente?ices containing the following in the 
plural: +, 7, i, — , t, z, 0, 5, p, q. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

2. Irreg'ular Plurals. 

Nine nouns have irregular plurals, viz. : 

Singular : foot, goose, tooth, louse, mouse, man, woman, child, ox. 

Plural: feet, geese, teeth, lice, mice, men, women, children, oxen. 

Exercise IX. 

ly^ Let the pupil change the foUowijig se?ite?tces into the 
plural: 

I. My foot is sore. 2. The goose swims. 

3. His tooth aches. 4. The child catches a mouse. 

5. The man has an ox. 6. The vroman crochets. 

3. Double Plurals. 

Eight nouns have two forms for the plural differing in 
meaning, viz. : 

Brother brothers (of same family) brethren {of sajne society). 

Cow cows [j?iore than one) kine [poetic tise). 

Die dies {for coijwig) dice [for garning). 

Fish fishes [jnore tha?i one) fish {quantity). 

Geinus geniuses {talerited men) genii {spirits). 

Index indexes {tables of contorts) indices {exponents). 

Pea peas {?nore than one) pease {species). 

Penny ^tnmts {pieces of jnoney) pence {£ng. cur). 

Exercise X. 

^^^ Let the pupil write se?ite?ices showing the uses of these 
double plurals. 

Model. — The kine gambol at high noon, but cows yield 
milk, cream, butter and cheese. 



24 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Peculiar Forms without s. 

Twenty words do not take s in the plural, viz. : 

Names of Certain Animals : Deer, grouse, neat, salmon, 

sheep, swine, trout, and vermin. 

Names of Collections : Baggage, brace, couple, dozen, fry, 

gross, head, pair, sail, score, span and yoke. 

Exercise XI. 

^ff^Let the pupil write se?itences containing the above words in 
the plural. 

Model. — A great many deer were shot. His baggage con- 
sists of trunks, valises and bundles. 

5. Peculiar Forms with s. 

Twelve words do not drop s in the singular, viz. : Amends^ 
apparatus^ alms, bellows, corps, gallows, means, oats, odds, pains, 
series and species. 

Exercise XII. 

^ff^ Let the pupil write sentences containing these words in 
the singular. 

Model. — The series is unending. The amends which he 
made is satisfactory. 

6. Compound Nouns. 

In compound nouns, the part described is pluralized j as, 
ox-cart, ox-carts ; cup-ful, cup-fuls ; brother-i?i-law, brothers- 
in-law. If both parts are equally prominent, both are plural- 
ized; as, ma?t-servant, men-servants ; knight-templar, knights- 
templars. 

Exercise XII. 

^ff^Let the pupil write the plural form of the following nouns : 
Father-in-law, handful, general-in-chief, grand-father, water- 
bucket, German, Frenchman, Mussulman, woman-servant, 
stove-pipe. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



25 



7. Miscellaneous Words. 

Many words with their pecuHar plurals have been adopted 
from other languages, among which the following are in 
general use, viz. : 



Sing. 


Bur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


alumnus 


alumni 


datum 


data 


analysis 


analyses 


erratum 


errata 


axis 


axes 


focus 


foci 


basis 


bases 


genus 


genera 


bandit 


banditti 


miasma 


miasmata 


beau 


beaux 


radius 


radii 


cherub 


cherubim 


seraph 


seraphim 


criterion 


criteria 


virtuoso 


virtuosi 



Exercise XIV. 
Let the pupil write sentences showing the use of these 
words. 

Model. — An Alumnus is a graduate of a school. 

3. The Recognition of Number. 
Exercise I. 
ly Let the pupil select the nouns and verbs and tell their 
number ; also, how the plural is formed, 

1. The wolves, regaining their feet, spring toward me. 

2. The race was renewed for twenty yards. 

3. Light flashes of snow spin from my skates. 
Bright faces are awaiting my return. 
Their tongues are lolling out, their white tusks are 
gleaming from their bloody mouths, and their eyes 
are gleaming. 

Exercise II. 
' Let the pupil select the nouns and verbs from his reading 
lesson and tell whether they are singular or plural. 



4. 



26 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER V. 

SEX AKD GEISDER. 

1. The Sex of Objects. 

A. — EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

^ff^ Let the teacher call the attention of the pupil to the differ- 
ence in the clothing, voice, size and hair oi persons; also, to the 
nature arid appearance of animals. 

Boys wear coats. Girls wear dresses. 

Boys wear caps. Girls wear bonnets. 

Boys have short hair. Girls have long hair. 

Boys are robust. Girls are delicate. 

Boys sing alto. Girls sing soprano. 

Now, by such characteristics, children are distinguished as 
males and females. Among the birds of larger size, the male 
is generally of greater size and has more brilliant plumage 
than the female. The male of the larger animals is distin- 
guished from the female by size, horns and hair. The smaller 
animals do not differ much in outward appearance, and hence 
are regarded as having no sex. 

Guided by marks like these, objects are divided into three 
classes, viz. : 

1. Male objects. 

2. Female objects. 

3. Objects without sex. 

Exercise. 

'Let the pupils name objects of the male sex; of the 
female sex; without sex. 



■^j 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

B.— INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Animals differ not only in exter7ial marks, but also in certain 
internal qualities, and hence inanimate objects are frequently 
regaided as males or females. 

Objects are thought to be males under the following circum- 
stances : 

1. When they are conspicuous for imparting ox com??iimi' 
eating; as, the Sun, God^ the Ocean, ^ther. 

2. When they are naturally active, strong and efficacious ; 
as. Time, Death, Sleep, Life, 

Objects are thought to be females under the following cir- 
cumstances : 

1. When they are conspicuous for receivifig, containing or 
producing; as, the Moon, the Earth, Ships and other 
marine vessels, cities, towJis, states and countries. 

In England rivers all are males — 

For instance Father Thames, 
Whoever in Columbia sails 

Fmds them ma'mselles or dames. 
Yes, there the softer sex presides, 

Aquatic, I assure ye. 
And Mrs. Sippy rolls her tides * 

Responsive to Miss Souri. 

2. When they are natmaWy passive, amiable or beautiful; 
as, Virtue, Faith, Hope, Charity, Temperance, 

3. When they are passions noted for excesses \ as. 

Here stood Illnaiii^'e, like an ancient maid. 
Her wrinkled form in black and white arrayed. 
There Affectation with a sickly mien, 
Shows in her cheek the roses of eighteen. 



28 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The Gender of Nouns. 

Sex is a quality of objects; gender is a quality of nouns. 

Nouns, with regard to the sex of the object represented, are 
masculine, feminine, or neuter, 

A noun is of the masculine gender, when it denotes a male 
or an object thought to be a male. 

EXAMPLES. 

yohn told \i\% father ^N^i'd.i his uncle said. 
Me Time hath bent, that sorry Artist, he 
That surely makes whate'er he handles, worse. 
Thames, with pride, surveys his rising towers. 

A noun is of the feminine gender, when it denotes a female 
or an object thought to be a female. 

EXAMPLES. 

Mary gave her mother what her aunt sent. 
Their parent Country in her bosom holds 
Their wearied bodies. 
When Music ^ heavenly Maid, was young. 
While yet in early Greece she sung. 

A noun is of the neuter gender, when it denotes a sexless 
object or an object to which no sex is attributed. 

EXAMPLES. 

Trees bear apples, peaches, plums, cherries and pears. 
Hoops, ropes, dolls and balls are playthings. 

The child is beautiful. Its hair is black and curly ; its eyes are dark, 
and its features are perfect. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

3. The Recognition of Gender. 

Exercise I. 

' Let the pupil select the nouns from the following extract 
and tell their kind and gender. 

First in his east the glorious lamp was seen, 

Regent of day, and all the horizon round 

Invested with bright rays, jocund to run 

His longitude through heaven's high road; the gray 

Dawn, and the Pleiades, before him danced, 

Shedding sweet influence : less bright the moon, 

But opposite in levelled west was set 

His mirror, with full face borrowing her light 

From him; for other light she needed none. 



Exercise II. 

"Let the pupil select the nouns fro?n the following extracts 
and tell their gender and kind. 

How charming is divine philosphy ! 

Not harsh and crabbed as dull fools suppose ; 

But musical as is Apollo's lute, 

And a perpetual feast of nectared sweets, 

Where no crude surfeit reigns. 

Mortals, that would follow me, 
Love Virtue ; she alone is free : 
She can teach you how to climb 
Higher than the sphery chime ; 
Or, if Virtue feeble were 
Heaven itself would stoop to her. 



30 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise III. 

' Let the pupil select the nouns from the following exercises 
and tell their gender : 

Good-by to Flattery's fawning face ; 

To Grandeur, with his wise grimace 

To upstart WeaUh's averted eye ; 

To supple Office, low and high ; 

To crowded halls, to court and street ; 

To frozen hearts and hasting feet; 

To those who go and those who "come ; 

Good-by, proud world ! I'm going home. 



Exercise IV. 

' Let the pupil select all the nouns from the following sen- 
tences and tell their gender : 

Madness, with his frightful scream, 

Vengeance leaning on his lance, 
Avarice, with his blade and beam, 

Hatred, blasting with a glance, 
Remorse that weeps, and Rage that roars. 
And Jealousy that dotes, but dooms and murders, yet adores, 
Mirth, his face with sunbeams lit, 

Waking laughter's merry swell, 
Arm in arm with fresh eyed Wit, 

That waves his tingling lash, while Folly shakes his bell. 



Exercise V. 

Select a piece in the Reader and require the Sjsnder of all 
the nouns to be given. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

4. Corresponding Genders. 

Many correlative terms have been originated to express the 
distinctions between males and females in the relations they 
sustain to the state, to the family and to society. As it is im- 
portant that the pupil should learn the form and use of these 
terms, they are presented in classified lists in the following 

exercises : 

Exercise I. 

Royal Titles, — Czar, czarina ; sultan, sultana ; emperor, empress ; 
kaiser, kaiserinn; king, queen ; czarowitz, czarowitzina; dauphin, dau- 
phiness ; infante, infanta; prince, princess. 

1^^ Let the pupil write sentences using the masculi?te forms, 
and then substitute the corresponding feminine form, making the 
proper changes. 

Model. — Infante is the title of all the sons of the kings of 
Spain and Portugal, except the eldest, who is called Prince of 
Asturias, just as the heir-apparent to the British crown is 
called Prince of Wales. 

Model. — Prior to 1830 the eldest son of the king of France 
was called dauphin. 

Changed, — The wife of the dauphin was called dauphiness. 

Exercise II. 

Titles 'of Nobility, — Elector, electoress ; duke, duchess ; earl (count), 
countess; landgrave, landgravine; marquis, marchioness; margrave, mar- 
gravine; viscount, viscountess; baron, baroness. 

1^^ Let the pupil write sentences using the masculine forms 
of these words. Let him then substitute the feminiyie form. 

Model. — A margrave was a keeper of the marches, and is 
the German equivalent of the English marquis. 

Changed, — A margravine {Eng, marchioness) was a mar- 
grave's wife. 



32 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 

Titles of Respect, — Lord, Lady (^«^.)/ Don, Dona(^«;2.)y Signior, 
Signiora {ItaL); Monsieur, Madame or Mademoiselle {Fr,); Herr, Frau 
or Fraulein {Ger.)-, Mister (^r.), Mistress {Mrs.) or Miss {Am.); Master 
and Miss are applied to boys and girls. 

RULE FOR CAPITALS. 

Begin every title, when applied to a person, with a capital. 

I^^ Let the pupil write sentences showing the use of these 
titles. 

Model. — Ladies of every degree are addressed Mrs.^ and 
spoken to as madam, contracted into ma'am ; as, yes^ ma'am ; 
nOy ma'am. 

Exercise IV. 

Legal Titles, — Administrator, administratrix ; arbitrator, arbitratrix ; 
executor, executrix ; mediator, mediatrix ; prosecutor, prosecutrix ; re - 
lator, relatrix ; testator, testatrix. 



' Let the pupil write sentences showing the use of these 
legal titles. 

Model. — The testator appointed his wife his executrix. 

Changed. — The testatrix appointed her husband executor. 

Exercise V. 

Family Relations, — Husband, wife (j;^^^j-^)/ goodman, goody; father^ 
mother; papa, mamma; brother, sister; son, daughter; uncle, aunt; 
nephew, niece; 

Remark i. — The term grand is prefixed when the relationship is 
removed one degree ; as, grandfather^ granduncle, grandson. 

Remark 2. — When the relationship is by marriage, the term in-law 
is sometimes suffixed ; as, son-in-law^ mother-in-law. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

Remark 3. — The prefix step denotes relationship arising out of 
orphanage. The pupil should note the difference between a step-sister and 
a half-sister. 

Remark 4. — The German has separate terms for male and female 
cousins. We distinguish by saying cousin John or cousin Mary, 



Let the pupil write sentences illustrati?ig the use of 
these words. 

Model. — Goodman is a rustic term of compliment. 

** Plain Goody would no longer down; 
'Twas Madam in her grogram gown." 

Exercise VI. 

Social Relations.— yidilQ, female; man, woman; gentleman, lady; boy, 
girl ; youth, maiden ; lad, lass ; bachelor, maid {spinster); beau, belle ; 
swain, nymph; bridegroom, bride; bnde's-man, bride's-maid; widower, 
v;idow ; hero, heroine ; sloven, slattern ; gaffer, gammer. 



Let the pupil write seiitences illustrati?ig the use of these 
words. 

Model. — Gaffer \% a term applied to old rustics; as, Gaffer 
Treadwell ; Gammer Gurton'^s Needle. 

Exercise VII. 

Mythic and Religious Titles. — Abbot, abbess ; anchorite, anchoress ; 
deacon, deaconess ; diviner, diviness ; enchanter, enchantress ; founder, 
foundress; giant, giantess; god, goddess; Jew, Jewess; monk, nun; 
priest, priestess ; prior, prioress ; prophet, prophetess ; sorcerer, sorcer- 
ess; wizard, witch. 



Let the pupil write sentences showing the proper use of 
these words. 

Model. — An abbess is not an abbofs wife, but the gov- 
erness of a convent of nuns. 



84 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VIII. 

Animals, — Boar, sow; buck, doe; bullock, heifer; bull, cow; cock, 
hen; dog, bitch; drake, duck; gander, goose; hart (stag), hmd; lion, 
lioness; milter, spawner; ram, ewe; tiger, tigress; stallion, mare; sire, 
dam; colt, filly. 

Remark. — Gender is sometimes expressed by affixing he or she, man or 
maid^ male ox female ; as, he-goat, ?nan-servant, male-teacher, 

^^ Let the pupil write se?ite?ices co7itaining these words. 
Model. — A hind is the female of the red-deer^ while the 
female of \}ii^ fallow-deer is called a doe. 

Exercise IX. 

Miscellaneous. — The occupations which men and women pursue, and the 
offices which they iill, vary in the different ages, so that there are no special 
words in English to express a difference of sex in this respect. When 
it is necessary to do so, it is customary to suffix ess to the masculine form, 
or change its final syllable into ress or tress ; as, heir, heiress; actor, 
actress: negro, negress, 

^^ Let the pupil write the feminiiie for7n of the following 
words : 

Ambassador, auditor, author, caterer, conductor, director,*" 
doctor, editor, host, hunter, instructor, inventor, monitor, 
patron, poet, preceptor, proprietor, shepherd, tailor, tutor, 
waiter. 

Exercise X. 



' Let the pupil he requi7'ed to write the opposite genders of 
aiiy given nouns. 

Model : 

Given Nou7is : Beau, duke, marchioness, lass, hind. 

Masculine : Beau, duke. 

Femi7ii7ie : marchioness, lass, hind. 

Remark. — To master this exercise requires two processes: I. The 
arrangement of the words as above ; and, 2. The actual naming of the 
corresponding opposite genders. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

CHAPTER VI. 

PERSOXAL PKOXOUXS. 

1. Words Denoting Objects without Uaming Them. 

IV. The subject may denote an object participating in the 
discourse-, or so related to it as to be readily recognized with- 
out being named. 

EXAMPLES. 

/lost my way as /returned. 

You yourself spoke of your friends. 

He told me that you were expecting them, 

1. The subject may denote a person as speaking of himself 
Remark. — Words which denote the speaker as speaking, are called 

personal pronouns of the first person, '^because the speaker is always 
principal with respect to his own discourse." 

EXAMPLES. 

/wrote a letter to my mother. 

He gave me a book. 

Our friends remember us. 

We cling to what is ours, 

1 am myself again. 

We should not think too highly of ourselves. 

Mine are the gardens of earth and sea. 

2. The subject may denote the person to whom the dis- 
course is directed. 

Remark. — Words denoting the object to whom the discourse is direct- 
ed, without naming him, are called personal pronouns of the second person 
because, ''with reference to the discourse, the party addressed is next 
in dignity." 



36 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

Thou hast deceived thy best friend. 

Thine enemies shall not triumph over thee. 

You did not tell me thsit your book was lost. 

That slate is not yours, 

Cromwell, love thyself last. 

Little children, ^.^^^^ yourselves from idols. 

3. The subject may denote an object so related to the dis- 
course as to be recognized without being named. 

Remark. — Words which denote, but do not name, ** cither the speaker 
or the party addressed, but some third object different from both," are called 
pcisonal pronouns of the third person. 

EXAMPLES. 

He told his father what I bade him say. 

They admired the book you showed them. 

Her mother gave her a new doll. 

// is not his^ hers or theirs; it belongs to us. 

Their horses drowned themselves. 

The moth scorched its wings. 

Since personal pronouns imply the presence of other ob- 
jects, either actually or in thought, they always denote related 
objects. Hence — 

Definitioi^. — A word wMcli denotes, but does not 
name, an object, and shows whether the object is the 
speaker himself, the party addressed, or some other 
person or thing, is called a Personal Pronoun, 



J 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37 

2. Occidents of Personal Pronouns. 

Pronouns have person, number, gender, and case. Per- 
sonal pronouns of the first and second persons and the plural 
of the third person, have no forms to distinguish males from 
females, because the speaker and the party addressed are 
participants in the discourse, and hence their sex is appar- 
ent. In the third person plural distinction is not necessary. 
In the third person singular, however, it is generally necessary 
to distinguish the sex, and hence we have pronouns for each 
gender. The sentence. He caused him to destroy him, would 
not be intelligible. But let she and // be put in the place of 
he and him, and the sentence becomes clear. Thus : She 
(Thais) caused him (Alexander) to destroy it (Persepolis). 

TABLE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Person. First Person. Second Person 

Number. Sing. Plur. Sing. 

Gender. No special Forms. 

Case 

Nominative. I, we, tliou, 

Possessive. \ '"X' °"'^' ^X' y°"' 
^ mine, ours, thme, yours, 

Objective, me, us, thee, 

Remark i. — Mine^ thine ^ oicrs^ yours, his, hers, and theirs, are used 
to denote ownership ; as. That book is mine ; Gay hope is THEIRS. 

Remark 2. — The so-called compound personal pronouns, myself, our- 
self, or ourselves, thyself, yourself, or yourselves, himself, herself, itself, 
and themselves, being compounds of the noun self, are really nouns of the 
third person. 



Person. 




Third Person. 


Plur. 




Sing. Plur. 




Mas. 


Fern. Neu. No Forms. 


you or ye. 


he. 


she, it, they. 


you, 
yours, 


his, 
his, 


her, its, their, 
hers, theirs. 


you, 


him, 


, her, it, them. 



38 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Use of Personal Pronouns. 

Exercise I. 



'Let the pupil write te?t se7ttences using perso7ial pronoujis 
of the first person. 

Model. — My dog bit me. 

Exercise II. 



' Let the pupil write ten sentences using personal pro7iouns 
of the second person. 

Model. — -Your brother has the book you gave me. 

Exercise III. 

^^Let the pupil write twenty sentences using pronouns of the 
third perso7t — five masculine, yfz/«f feminine, fi.ve neuter, and 
five in the plural nu77iber. 

Model.— John sold him his horse. 

Exercise IV. 



^ Let the pupil change all the nouns, pronouns, ^;^^ verbs, 
in some paragraph in his reading lesson into the plural number. 

4. The Recognition of Personal Pronouns. 

Exercise I. 

1^^ Let the pupil select the pronouns from the followi7ig 
se7ite7ices : 

1 . I was not aware that you sent it to me. 

2. They will send him to his grand-parents. 

3. Did you receive the letter which he wrote you ? 

4. We should always control ourselves. 

5. Thou art gone to thy grave! We will not deplore thee ! 

Exercise II. 
^^ Let the pupil select all the personal pronouns from his 
reading lessons^ and tell their person, number, gender and case. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. S9 

CHAPTER VII. 

TRAXSITIYE AXD IXTHAl^TSITITE VERBS. 

1. Kinds of Words Expressing Energies. 

We have seen (Chapter VI, First Cnxle,) that a word 
which expresses the energy of an object is called a Verb. 
The energy expressed may manifest itself in two ways, viz. : 

1. It may not pass out of the object. 

2. It may pass from one object to another. 

EXAMPLES. 

He hes on the gromid. He lays his book on the ground. 

He rises from his seat. He raises a flag to its place. 

He sits on a chair. He sets the chairs in order. 

He sleeps soundly. He puts the child to sleep. 

Words w^hich express the energies of objects are therefore 
of two kinds. When the energy does not pass out of the 
object which manifests it, the word expressing it is called an 
Intransitive Verb. But when the energy cognizes, affects or 
produces some other object, the word expressing it is called a 
Transitive Verb. Hence — 

Defii^ition". — A word wliicli expresses an energy 
wliicli does not pass out of the object whicli mani- 
fests it, is called an Intransitive Verb. 

DEFi]sriTiO]sr.— A word which expresses an energy 
whicli passes out of the object which manifests it to 
some other object, is called a Transitive Verb. 

Remark. — Transitive verbs are frequently used without a word de- 
noting the object to which the energy is directed, in which case they should 
be called transitive verbs used intransitively. 



40 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Use of Words Expressing Energies. 
Exercise I. 
' Let the pupil write ten sentences containing intransitive 



verbs. 

Model. — The flock of birds yf<fze/ rapidly away. 

Exercise IL 

t^^ Let the pupil write ten se?ttences C07itaini7ig transitive 
verbs. 

Model. — The id.xm.tx ploughs his fields. 

3. The Recognition of Verbs. 
Exercise I. 



' Let the pupil select the verbs from the following sentences^ 
and tell which are transitive and which intransitive : 

1. The small boy does what the big boy says. 

2. The man arose as soon as he awoke. 

3. It became his duty to bear the news. 

4. The oxen drew the water, but the cattle drank it. 

5. They began to speak of what was done. 

6. The birds have flown, because winter has come. 

Exercise II. 

1^^ Let the pupil select the verbs from his reading lessons a?td 
tell their kind. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

CHAPTER VIII. 

OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

1. Words Denoting the Objects of Acts. 

We have seen that the energy expressed by a transitive 
verb passes out of the object which manifests it to some other 
object. This energy may manifest itself in four ways, viz. : 

1. It may be the act by which the object is known. 

2. It may be the act by which the object is affected. 

3. It may be the act by which the object is produced. 

4. The act may externahze itself in a kindred object. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Acts Cognizing Objects. 

John sees the bird. Frank hears the music, 

Lewis smells the rose. George tastes the peach. 

William touches the ceili?ig. Henry studies geography. 

James learns printing. He teaches arithmetic. 

2. Acts Affecting Objects. 

John strikes George. The horse pulls the load. 

The farmer ploughs \\\e field. The men quarry stoiie. 

3. Acts Producing Objects. 

John builds a house. George writes a letter. 

Tailors make clothes. Boys make kites. 

Birds build nests. Authors write books. 



42 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Acts Producing Kindred Objects. 

He ran a 7^ace. He sang a song. 

He struck a ^Z?ze/. He dreamed a dream. 

He heaved a i"/^/^. He shed a /<?^r. 

He smiled a ^;;^//(f. He uttered a groa7Z, 

Remark. — This last object is very much like the object of effect, and 
might be identified with it. The object produced, however, results from 
changing existing materials, while the object of kindred meaning is a pure 
creation springing out of the act. 

The object to which the energy expressed by a verb is im- 
mediately directed, is called the Direct Object. 

Remark. — Direct object is a generic term, including the four kinds of 
objects illustrated above, viz. : 

1. The object known by the act, called the object of cognition, 

2. The object affected by the act, called i]\Q passive object, 

3. The object produced, called the object of effect, 

4. The object in which the act externalizes itself, called the object of 
kindred meaning. 

Besides the object to which the act is immediately directed, 
an act may be done to or for some person or thing. As this 
object is not immediate, but remote, it is called the Indirect 
Object 

EXAMPLES. 

My father bought me a ball. Aunt Mary gave her a doll. 
She sold me her book. You taught him arithmetic. He 
showed them the way. They wrote us two letters. 

As such words as these limit the application of the verb, 
that is, determine the act in regard to its objects, they are 
called Objective Elemeiits, Hence — 

Defikitiq]^. — A noun or pronoun used to denote 
either the immediate or the remote object of the act 
expressed by a verb, is called an Objective Element. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

Remark. — In order to find the objective element, putwAaL^ whom? to 
or for what? or to or for whom ? after the verb, and the v^^ord answering the 
question is an objective element. Thus : John writes letters. John writes 
what? Ans. Letters, Hence letters is an objective element. 

2. Use of Objective Elements. 

Exercise I. 

I^^ Let the pupil fill out the following sentences with suitable 
objective elements. 

1. John wrote 7. Birds build 

2. Boys fly 8. Children read 

3. Girls sing 9. George teaches 

4. Adolf learns 10. Men wear 

5. Bears like 11. Cats catch 

6. Misers love 12. Merchants sell 

Exercise II. 

1^^ Let ine pupil write ten sentences containing objective ele- 
ments denoti?tg direct objects. 

Exercise III. 

1^^ Let the pupil fill out each of the following sentences with 
two objective elements, 

1. He sold 7. John bought 

2. He struck 8. Rebecca told 

3. She sang 9. Ada made 

4. You showed 10. Emma will sell 

5. They wrote 11. You gave 

6. We will send 12. They lent 

Exercise IV. 



Let the pupil write ten sente?ices each contai?ting two 
objective elements. 



44 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Recognition of Objective Elements. 
Exercise I. 

l^Lei the pupil point out the objective elements in the foU 

lowing se7itences ; 

I. Men have done brave deeds and bards have sung them 
well. 2. I scatter crumbs for the birds and fling them threads. 
3. The Indian hunter pursued the panting deer. 4. Art has 
usurped the bowers of nature. 5. She lent me her book. 

Exercise II. 

^^ Let the pupil select the objective elements from the fol- 
lowing extract : 

Nature and art their stores outpoured. 

For friendship there, with stronger chain, 
Devoted hearts already bound 

For good or ill, will bind agaia. 

Exercise III. 



""Let the pupil select the objective elements from the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. They brought me several beautiful bouquets. 

2. His father bought him a fine horse. 
2. Mary gave her mother a present. 

4. They promised me a new piano. 

5. My seat-mate lent me his book. 

6. They showed us the parks. 

7. He offered to sell them his house. 

8. John sent his mother many letters. 

Exercise IV. 

^ff^ Let the pupil select the objective elements /r^;?^ his read- 
ing lesson. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 



CHAPTER IX. 
LIMITEsG ADJECTIVES. 

1. Words Determining the Application of Nouns. 

Since Common Nouns denote objects indefinitely, certain 
words must be added to them to determine their apphcation 
to particular objects. Thus, should I wish to use the w^ord 
ma7i definitely, I must place tliis^ that, or some similar word 
before it j as, This 7?mn is rich, That i?ia7i is poor, Each man 
is strofig. If, however, I change ma7i to me?i, I must then 
say. These two 7ne?t are rich, Those five men are poor, using 
TWO and five to determine just how many persons the word 
men denotes. 

A word thus used to show which object, or how 77ia7iy ob- 
jects a noun represents, is called a Limiting Adjective. 
Hence — 

Definition". — A word joined to a noun to deter- 
mine its application by telling which one or how 
many^ is called a Limiting Adjective. 

Remark i. — A word which is joined to a noun or pronoun to tell the 
kind or condition of the object denoted by it, is called a Qualifying Adjec- 
tive. (See First Circle, Chapter VII.) 

Remark 2. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns, such 2iS French 
from Fra7tce, Swiss from Switzerland, Oxojiian from Oxford, and New- 
tonian from Newton, are called Proper Adjectives. All proper adjectives 
begin with capitals. 

Remark 3. — Limiting Adjectives are sometimes used without the 
limited noun, m which case they are called Adjective Pronouns ; as, All 
is not gold that glitters ; Many are called but FEW are chosen. 



46 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A.— WORDS SHOWING WHICH ONE OR WHICH ONES: 

The, this, these, that, those, the former, the latter, the one, 
the other, the same, very, such, yon, yonder, another, both, 
whichever, whichsoever, which, what, first, second, third, 
# # # # next, last. 

B.— WORDS SHOWING HOW MANY 

a. Definitely : 

One, two, three * * * =* each, every, no, 
all, dozen, score. 

b. Indefinitely : 

A or an, any, some, several, few, many. 

2. Use of Limiting Adjectives. 

Exercise I. 

i^^ Let the pupil complete the following sentences by filling 
ike blanks with suitable Limiting Adjectives : 

1. . . -OX bears yoke. 7. . . .birds built nests. 

2. lady teaches children. 8. . . .horses make . .team. 

3. carpenter uses saw. 9. boys pick . . .cherries. 

4. ...boy reads book. 10. ...girls have dolls. 

5. man rides horse. 11. — trees have .... leaves. 

6. ... cat caught rat. 12. river has forks. 

Model. — man carries baskets=EACH man carries 

TWO baskets. 

Exercise II. 



"^Let the pupil write te7i sentences using words telling which 
one : 

Model. — The last star had faded from the crown of night. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

Exercise III. 

Let the pupil write tejt sefitences contaiiting definite num- 
bers. 

Model. — There y^tx^ fifty persons on the car. 

Exercise IV. 

1^^ Let the pupil write te?i se?itences containing indefi7iite 
numbers. 

Model. — I have only 2. few apples left. 

3. The Recognition of Limiting Adjectives. 

Exercise I. 



' Lei the pupil select all the Li??iiti?tg Adjectives from the 
following extract : 

1. There shall be sung another golden age, 

The rise of empire and of arts. 

2. Westward the course of empire takes its way : 

The first four acts already past, 
A fifth shall close the drama with the day : 
Time's noblest offspring is the last. 

Exercise II. 

1^^ Let the pupil select the Li??iiti?ig Adjectives from the fol- 
towi?ig sentences: 

1. The highest officer commanded the last squadron. 

2. The first man was killed near the next hill., 

3. There were seven boys and one man in that canoe. 

4. That man's youngest child is a girl. 

5. This httle twig bore that large red apple. 

Exercise III. 



' Let the pupil select all the Limiting Adjectives from his 
reading lesson. 



48 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER X. 

ADJECTr\E ELEMEISTTS. 
1. Words Used Adjectively. 

A.— POSSESSIVES. 

Exercise I. 

^^Let the teacher write the following sentences on the black- 
board : 

1. John's book is torn. 

2. Our apples are ripe. 

3. His kite is finished. 

4. Harry's ball is lost. 

5. Her fan is broken. 

6. Mary's doll is beautiful. 
Let such questions as these be asked — 

Whose book is torn ? Whose apples are ripe ? Whose kite 
is finished ? Whose ball is lost ? Whose fan is broken ? 
Whose doll is beautiful ? 
From these sentences two inferences may be drawn : 

1. A noun or pronoun denoting the possessor may 

limit a noun denoting the thing possessed. 

2. The limiting noun or pronoun takes a peculiar 

form, called the Possessive Case. 

Remark. — We found (Lesson VI) that pronouns have three forms 
called the nominative, the possessive and the objective. These forms are 
called cases. When a noun or pronoun is used as a subject, the form 
which it takes is called the nominative case. When it denotes the object 
of an act (Lesson VIII), the form which it takes is called the objective 
case. The nominative and the objective forms of nouns are identical. 
The only change which a noun undergoes to show its relation to some 
other word, is the suffixing of 's or the apostrophe (') without s. Case is 
form, not relation ; nevertheless, the form is determined by the relation. 



SECOND CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR 49 

Exercise II. 

Let the following S€7ite?ues be writte?i o?i the blackboard: 

1. Solomon's temple was of great renoAvn. 

2. Ladies' gloves are ver}' cheap. 

3. John's uncle is convalescing. 

4. The sun's rays are piercing. 

5. The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648. 

6. Tiie boy's coat was badly torn. 

Remark. — Solomon's temp]e=the temple built by Solomon. Ladies' 
gloves=gloves adapted to the use of ladies. John's uncle r^ a person re- 
lated to John by birth or marriage. The sun's rays=rays emanating from 
the sun. The Thirty Years* War=a war lasting thirty years. The boy's 
coat=the coat belonging to the boy. 

From these facts the following inferences may be drawn : 

I Possessives express other relations than that of 
possessor. 

2. Possessives are placed before nouns to determine 

their application. 

3. Possessives denote objects different from the 

nouns they limit. 

4. Possessives implicitly attribute something to the 

object denoted by the limited noun. 

Exercise III. 

^P^ Let the following expressions be written on the black- 
board : 

Sing. Plur, 

The boy's slate. The boys' slates. 

The man's shoes. The men's shoes. 

The child's book. The children's books. 

The lady's fan. The ladies' fans. 
4 



50 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Possessives of Proper Nouns. 

Bums's Poems. Archimedes* sgrew. 

Davies' Mathematics. Charles's book. 

Moses' anger. Prentice's Poems. 

Sanders' Readers. Hedges* Logic. 

By examining the above examples, we may infer the following 

Rule for Forming the Possessive Case. 

The possessive case of all nouns is formed by suffixing 's to 
the singular or plural form, except that in common nouns 
ending in the sound of s, and proper nouns ending in the 
sounds of eez, ez, or urz, we suppress the s and retain the (') 
apostrophe. 

Remark. — The V7 or diS feet, geese, lice, ?nice, teeth, men, women, chil- 
dren, oxen, deer, sheep and swine, have 's in the possessive plural. 

Exercise IV. 

1^^ Let the pupil write the possessive singular and the pos- 
sessive plural of the following nouns : 

Geography, boy, fly, hero, cottage, church, man, child, 
sheep, ox, scissors, conscience, bush, box, judge. Miss, kiss. 

Model for Writing Possessives. 

Given Words: geography, boy, fly hero, 
Foss, Sing,: geography's, boy's, fly's hero's, 
Foss, Flur, : geographies', boys', flies' heroes'. 

Exercise V. 

l^Let the pupil write according to the above model, the pos- 
sessive singular and the possessive plural of 7iouns selected from 
the reading lesson. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

B.—APPOSITIVES. 
Exercise I. 

'Let the following senfe7ices be writtefi 07i the blackboard : 

1. Milton the poet was blind. 

2. Henry the Fourth was an excellent king. 

3. Cicero, the celebrated orator, was made consuL 

4. William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon king. 

5. We the people do ordain this constitution. 

Let such questions as these be asked — Which Milton ? 
Which Henry ? Which Cicero ? Which William ? We who ? 

The following inferences may be drawn : 

1. A noun is sometimes placed after a noun or pro- 

noun to distinguish the object denoted from 
some other of the same name. 

2. As the limiting noun is placed after the limited 

noun or pronoun, it is called an Appositive. 

3. The two words always denote the same object. 

Exercise IL 

1^^ Let the pupil place appositives after the nouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. George reigned sixty years. 

2. Paul was a great missionary. 

3. Alexander was ambitious. 

4. Napoleon was captured at Sedan. 

5. Tennyson wrote Enoch Arden. 

6. The word is the name of a bird. 

6. Alfred founded Oxford University 

8. The ship was wrecked. 

Remark. — Appositives, if consisting of more than two words, are pre- 
ceded and followed by commas. 



52 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

C— NOUNS DENOTING QUALITIES. 
Exercise I. 

^^Let the following expressio7is be written on the blackboai^d : 
A ten-foot pole ; a five-cent cigar ; an iron ring ; a silver 

pitcher; a fiddle string; a coal shovel; a forty-acre farm; a 

chairmaker; a shoemaker; a watchmaker. 
Two inferences m^ay be drawn : 

1. The limiting noun denotes a quality or trait of the 

object denoted by the limited noun. 

2. The limiting noun retains its theme form, that is, 

the noun is neither pluralized nor put into the 
possessive case. 

Exercise II. 



' Let the pupil correct the form of the limiting noun in the 
following expressions : 

A sixty-six feet chain; a ten-cents cigar; chairsmaker; 
shoesmaker ; the Oldham's farm ; Illinois' coal. 

\Ve have thus found that the application of nouns is deter- 
mined by the following classes of words : 
I. Adjectives, viz. : 

1. Qualifying Adjectives (First Circle, Chap. VII). 

2. Limiting Adjectives (Second Circle, Chap. IX). 
II." Nouns and pronouns used Adjectively, viz. : 

1. Possessives. 

2. Appositives. 

3. Nouns denoting some quality or trait. 

As approximate elements of speech, such words are called 
Adjective Elements. Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a noun to deter- 
mine its application, and telling wMch oneov whose, 
liow many, or what Mnd^ is called an Adjective 
Element. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

2. Use of Adjective Elements. 

Exercise I. 

' Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing a noun 
limited by a word tellifig which one or whose. 

Model. — My book is torn. That tree is dead. 

Exercise II. 

^ff^ Let the pupil write ten sentences each C07itaini7ig a noun 
Hfjiited by a word telling how many objects the 7ioun denotes. 

Model. — I caught sixteen trout this morning. 

Exercise III. 

J^^ Let the pupil write ten senteiices each cofitaining a noun 
limited by a word telling the kind of object de?ioted by the limited 
moun. 

Model. — I gathered a bouquet of wild flowers. 
Exercise IV. 



' Let the pupil write ten sentences each co?ttaining a 7ioun 
limited by two adjective ele7ne7its. 

Model. — Whose beautiful horse is that ? 

Exercise V. 

1^^ Let the pupil write ten se7itences each contai7iing a noun 
li77iited by three adjective ele7ne7its. 

Model. — My father gave me these twofi7ie pears. 



54 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — All adjective elements, except appositives, are placed before 
the limited noun in the following order : 

1. Those telling which one or whose. 

2. Those telHng how many. 

3. Those tellmg what kind. 

3. The Eecognition of Adjective Elements. 

Exercise I. 

^^Let the pupil select all the adjective eleme?tts from the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1. The poet Cowper wrote many beautiful poems. 

2. Yon branching elm must be a thousand years old. 

3. Very small scrubby trees grow near the mountain's top. 

4. My neighbor's vicious horse destroyed my rare plants. 

5. A very large ship was sunk by this rifled cannon. 

6. The poor but industrious young man amassed a large fortune. 

Exercise II. 

\^^Let the pupil select all the adjective elements from the fol-* 

lowifig extract : 

O Scotia ! my dear, my native soil ! 

For whom my warmest wish to heaven is sent ! 
Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil 

Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content ! 
And O, may heaven their simple lives prevent 

From luxury's contagion, weak and vile ! 
Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, 

A virtuous populace may rise the while, 
And stand, a wall of fire, around their much-loved isle. 

Exercise III. 

^^Let the pupil select the adjective elements from his reading 
lesson. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

CHAPTER XL 
ADVERBS. 

1. Words Limiting Verbs. 

Exercise I. 

Let the pupil tell which words express time in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. John came yesterday. 

2. Henry called soon afterwards. 

3. Mary started early this morning. 

4. He called twice two days beforehand. 

5. She sometimes goes long before. 

Exercise II. 

^ff^Let the pupil tell which words express place in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. George comes here daily. 

2. The balloon first went upward and then eastward. 

3. He will go elsewhere to-morrow. 

4. Come hither, hither, pretty fly. 

5. I know not whither he went or whence he came. 

Exercise III. 

^^ Let the pupil tell which words express cause in the foU 
lowing sentences : 

1. He told me why he did it. 

2. I asked him wherefore he left home to-day. 

3. John was sent to see his uncle. 

4. James went to get a book. 

5. He sent the cavalry to reconnoitre. 

6. Hence we departed. 



56 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Since such words as these express the circumstances of 
tijne, place and cause ^ they are called Circumstantial Adverbs. 
Hence — 

DEFiisriTioisr. — A word which limits a verb and ex- 
presses time^ place or cause^ is called a Circumstan- 
tial Adverb. 

Exercise IV. 

S^^ Let the pupil select the words expressing manner in the 
followi7tg sentences : 

1. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

2. The army fought bravely and skillfully. 

3. The boatmen rowed briskly and sang merrily. 

4. The boat sped rapidly onward. 

5. The hall was brilliantly illuminated. 

Exercise V. 

I^" Let the pupil tell which words express degree in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. The cars moved very rapidly. 

2. He is almost crazed with grief. 

3. It was so cold that he was almost frozen. 

4. The clouds move quite slowly. 

5. He was too sick to go. 

Since words which express manner or degree, limit verbs, 
adjectives and other adverbs, they are called Intensive Ad- 
verbs. Hence — - 

Deftnitiq]^. — A word joined to a verb, adjective 
or other adverb, to show the intensity of the quality 
it expresses, is called an Intensive Adverb. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

Exercise VI. 

^" Lei the pupil select the words expressing Aegree from the 
following sentefices : 

1. A good name is better than riches. 

2. Who has most enemies and fewest friends? 

3. The longer he lives, the wiser he becomes. 

4. I said an elder soldier, not a better. 

5. Frederick was a greater general than Napoleon. 

J^ We find degree expressed by a change in the form of 
words. 

A.— COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 
Exercise VII. 



"Let the pupil carefully exainine the following sentences : 

1. A river is deep^ a lake is deeper^ but the ocean is the deep- 
est body of water. 

2. John is good^ George is better^ but James is the best boy 
in school. 

3. Want is bad^ debt is worse ^ but of all other things lazi- 
ness is the worst, 

4. I shall go soon^ you will go soo7ter, but he will go soonest 
of all. 

5. This horse travels y^^/, that horse travels /^^/<fr, but my 
horse travels t\\Q fastest. 

From a careful inspection of the above sentences we may 
make the following inferences : 

1. The quality in one object or act may be more or less 
intense than the same quality in other similar objects 
or acts. 

2. The form of the adjective or adverb may be changed 
to express this difference of intensity. 



58 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMiMAR. 



3. The three forms which an adjective or adverb may- 
take, are called the positive degree, the comparative 
degree and the superlative degree. 

4. The process of thus changing the form of an adjective 
or adverb, is called comparison. 

5. The unchanged form of an adjective or adverb sus- 
ceptible of change, is called the positive degree. 

6. The form which shows that a quality in one object or 
act is more or less intense than a like quality in 
another object or act, is called the comparative de- 
gree. 

7. The form which shows that a quality in one object or 
act is more intense than a like quality in two or more 
other objects or acts, is called the superlative degree. 

B.— THE FORMATION OF THE COMPARATIVE AND 
SUPERLATIVE. 



1. The comparison of monosyllabic and of dissyllabic ad- 
jectives whose last syllable begins with a consonant, is formed 
by suffixing to the theme r or er for the comparative, and st 
or est for the superlative. 

2. The following adjectives form their comparison irregu- 
larly : 



Positive. 


Comparative, 


Superlative. 


bad, 


worse. 


worst. 


far. 


farther. 


farthest. 


good. 


better, 


best. 


late. 


later or latter. 


latest or last, 


little. 


lesser or less. 


least. 


many, 


more. 


most, 


near, 


nearer. 


nearest or next, 


old, 


older or elder, 


oldest or eldest. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



3. The following adverbs are compared : 



^osiiive. 


Comparative. 


Stiperlativ 


ill. 


worse. 


worst. 


little. 


less, 


least, 


much, 


more. 


most, 


well. 


better. 


best, 


fast. 


faster, 


fastest, 


long. 


longer, 


longest, 


often, 


oftener. 


oftenest. 


soon, 


sooner. 


soonest. 



C— POSITION OF THE ADVERB. 

Exercise VIII. 

' Let the pupil carefully observe the relative position of the 
italicized words, 

1. He went vtxy far away; — up; — down. 

2. She came quite early yesterday morning. 

3. He arrived very soon afterwards. 

4. The physician frequently calls twice daily. 

Remark. — As limiting words may be placed before or after the limited 
word, they are called prepositives or appositives. A limiting word is a 
prepositive when it is placed before the limited word ; it is called an ap- 
positive, when it is placed after it. 

Exercise IX. 



'Let the pupil observe the position of the adverbs in the 
following se?iteftces : 

1. Here I stand; or, I stand here. 

2. There he goes ; or, He goes there. 

3. The sails were shaking violently. 

4. He learns his tasks readily. 

5. The sails were already brought within folds. 

6. I really believe some people save their best thoughts. 

7. Our enemies usually teach us what we are. 

8. The gentlemen alternately nibbled and sipped. 

9. It is impossible to be at work continually. 
10. Their neighbors were not all invited. 



60 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

From this we may make the following inferences : 

1. Circumstantial adverbs are never placed between the sub- 

ject and predicate. 

2. Adverbs denoting manner, especially if long words, are placed 

at the end of the sentence. 

3. Intensive Adverbs are placed before the word which they limit. 

2. Use of Adverbs. 

Exercise I. 

^^^ Let the pupil write ten sentences containing CixQVLm!&i2iTi' 
tial Adverbs. 

Exercise II. 

^^Let the pupil write ten sentences containing Intensive Ad- 
verbs. 

Exercise III. 

ly Let the pupil write ten sentences containing adjectives or 
adverbs in the comparative degree. 

Exercise IV. 

1^^ Let the pupil write ten sente?ices containing adjectives or 
adverbs in the superlative degree. 

Exercise V. 

^^Let the pupil write ten sentences each containiftg two ad- 
verbs. 

Exercise VI. 



Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing three 
adverbs. 



» 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

3. The Recognition of Adverbs. 

Exercise I. 

"Let the fupil select the adverbs from the following 
extracts : 

1. Look once more, ere we leave this specular mound, 
Westward, much nearer by southwest ; behold 
Where on the ^gean shore a city stands, 

Built nobly. 

2. Wheresoever I turn my ravished eyes, 

Gay gilded scenes and shining prospects rise ; 
Poetic fields encompass me around, 
And still I seem to tread on classic ground ; 
For here the muse so oft her harp has strung, 
That not a mountain rears its head unsung. 

3. How gloriously her gallant course she goes ! 
Her white wings flying — never from her foes — 
She walks the waters like a thing of life. 

And seems to dare the elements to strife. 
Who would not brave the battle-fire, the wreck, 
To move the monarch of her peopled deck ? 

Exercise II. 
"^Let the pupil select the adverbs from the following extract : 

To each his sufferings ; all are men 

Condemned alike to groan : 
The tender for another's pain, 

Th' unfeeUng for his own. 
Yet ah ! why should they know their fate. 
Since sorrow never comes too late. 

And happiness too swiftly flies ? 
Thought would destroy their paradise — 
No more ! Where ignorance is bliss, 

'Tis folly to be wise. 

Exercise III. 

' Let the pupil select the adverbial elements from his read- 
ing lesson. 



62 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XII. 
ADVERBIAL. EliEMElS^TS. 

1. Words Used as Adverbs. 

A~NOUNS OF QUANTITY. 
Exercise I. 

Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 

1. He remained there two years. 

2. I arrived at home this morning. 

3. Wheat is a dollar a bushel. 

4. He weighed about two hundred pounds. 

5. He rides ten miles every day. 

6. She talks a great deal. 

7. She walks a queen. 

8. The street extends five miles. 

9. He comes Tuesdays and Thursdays. 

Let such questions as these be asked — 

How long did he remain ? When did I arrive ? What is 
the price of wheat ? How much did he weigh ? How far and 
how often did he ride ? How much did she talk ? How far 
does the street extend ? When does he generally come ? 

1^ Nouns answering the questions how long, when, what 
price, how, how far, and how much, are used adverbially. 



I 



SECOND CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

B.— PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 
Exercise II. 
^^ Lei tJie following sente?ices be written o?i the blackboard: 

1. He came riding backwards. 

2. They returned rejoicing and praising God. 

3. Her clear voice came ringing on the air. 

4. I was forced to beg my bread. 

5. He went to see his friend. 

6. Read so as to be heard. 

7. I am ready to go. 

8. He is quite anxious to learn. 
Let such questions as these be asked — 

How did he come ? How did they return ? How did her 
voice come ? To what exte-nt was I forced ? Hoiu am I to 
read ? In what 7'espect am I ready ? Anxious ? 

We find that the participial nouns are used adverbially to 
express purpose^ co7iseque?ice^ extent^ 7nanner, and respect 
wherei?i. Hence — 

Definition. — K. word joined to a verb, adjective 
or other adverb, to decermine its application, and 
expressing place, time, cause^ manner or degree^ is 
called an Adverbial Element. 

2. Use of Adverbial Elements. 

Exercise I. 
ty Let the pupil write ten sentences containing nouns of 
quantity. 

Model. — The boy paid a dollar for the knife. 
Exercise II. 

ty Let the pupil write ten sente?ices containing participial 
nouns used adverbially. 

Model. — The wolves went howling after their prey. 



64 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Recognition of Adverbial Elements. 

Exercise I. 



' the pupil select all the adverbial elements from the fol 
lowing sentences and tell what words they limit : 

1. Henry usually wears his coat cloak fashion. 

2. My friend is to start day after to-morrow morning. 

3. My teacher comes Wednesdays and Saturdays. 

4. A spoonful a day is a dose for a child. 

5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

6. Not even a philosopher could endure it patiently. 

7. Never before did I see her look so pale. 

8. The comet had moved almost a billion miles. 

9. Not a drum was heard ; not a funeral note. 
10. Not many could have done better. 

Exercise II. 

^^Let the pupil select the adverbial elements from the follow- 
ing extract : 

That day I oft remember, when from sleep 

I first awaked, and found myself reposed 

Under a shade on flowers, much wondering where 

And what I was, whence thither brought, and how. 

Not distant far from thence a murmuring sound 

Of waters issued from a cave, and spread 

Into a liquid i)lain, then stood unmoved. 

Pure as the expanse of heaven : I thither went 

With unexperienced thought, and laid me down 

On the green bank, to look into the clear smooth lake. 

Exercise III. 

^^Let the pupil select the adverbial elements /r^;;/ his read- 
ing lesson. 



THIRD CIRCLE 



IK 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

FOR THE 

SIXTH YEAR OR GRADE. 

BY 

T. E. VICKROY, A.M., 

Author of "An Elementary Grammar of the English Language," etc. 



The advance in study is most rapid where the facts to he learned are SYSTE- 
]\rATiCALLY arranged. — Wickersham. 



/l/U J 

ST. LOUIS: 
G. I. JOXES AXD COMPANY. 

1880. 



9^ 



Entered according to Act of Cong-ress, in the j^ear 1880, by 

T. R. VICKROY, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at ^Vashington. 



PEEFAOE. 



The following pages contain what is designed to be a third 
year's work in Enghsh Grammar, and covers the subject 
matter for instruction in the Sixth Grade. 

This book contains the last results of the author's investi- 
gations on the topics herein treated, and hence, while these 
results differ in some respects from what is currently taught, 
this very difference may prove to be the solution of many 
difficulties which have hitherto perplexed students of Enghsh 
grammar. 

The topics to which special attention is called, are Copula- 
tive Verbs and Modes, Chapters II and VI. In Chapter II 
all that relates to the Copula andAttribute, in connection with 
the many forms under which the Attribute is found, is brought 
together and is presented in progressive exercises, so as to 
make clear their differences and connections. The explication 
of this subject has cost the author more time and care than 
any other. As the Copula expresses the self-activity of the 
thinker, the creative act by which higher truth is ever seized, 
it is necessary to make this point as explicit and plain as pos- 
sible. Let this Chapter be carefully studied in all its details. 

Chapter VI treats the difficult and much mooted question 
of Mode. Here the author has departed from the usual 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

course, and has separated what is possible or potential from 
what is necessary^ obligatory or compulsory. The poie7itial is 
thus separated from the necessary, since it is fundamentally 
distinct and different, and hence our classification of the 
thought relations expressed by the verb is comprehensive and 
exhaustive. The Requisitive Mode thus comprehends what 
is usually expressed by the periphrastic conjugations, for which 
writers on grammar have not heretofore found a fitting place 
in their systems. 

In the Second Circle the modifications of the subject and 
elements of the first class were presented in copious drills. In 
this Circle the modifications of the vei^b and elements of the 
second class are similarly treated. 

The author's plan embraces a treatment of all sides of lan- 
guage culture. Hence, pupils are continually required to 
write sentences illustrating the principles learned, and after- 
wards they are to recognize the same in suitable sentences 
and extracts selected from the best specimens of. English 
literature. 

If teachers carefully carry out the work here presented, 
pupils will acquire such a thorough knowledge of the lan- 
guage as to be prepared to study more advanced works. 

In submitting this book to the judgment of his fellow 
teachers, the author asks for it their generous consideration. 

St. Louis ^ fune i8, 1880. 



TABLE OF OONTEKTS. 



General Definitions. 7. 
Classification of Words. 7. 
Properties of Words. 8. 

CHAPTER I. Review (9-15). 

1. What the subject may be 9 

2. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs ID 

3. Direct and Indirect Objects 10 

4. Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter Genders 1 1 

5. Modifiers of Substantives 12 

6. Modifiers of Verbs 13 

7. Determinatives and their Modifiers 14 

8. lingular and Plural Numbers 15 

CHAPTER II. Copulative Verbs. The Copula and Attributes 

(16-24). 

1. Copula, Copulative Verbs, and Attributes 16-17 

2. Models and Exercises . 17-21 

3. Copulative Verbs defined 22 

4. Exercises on use of Attributes 22-23 

5. Recognition of Copulas and Attributes 23-24 

CHAPTER III. Principal Parts of the Verb (25-30). 

I. Principal Parts named 25 

.2. Principal Parts given ». 25-29 

3. Regular and Irregular Verbs defined 30 

CHAPTER IV, The Active and the Passive Voice (31-34). 

1. Exercises and Models S'^SS 

2. Inferences and Definitions 33-34 

3. Use and Recognition of Voice 34 

(5) 



b TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER V. Tense, Form, Person and Number, Auxiliaries 

(35-43). 

1. Exercises on the Present, Past, and Future Tenses ... 35 

2. Inferences 36 

3. Exercises on the Perfect Tenses Z^^7 

4. Inferences and Classification of Tenses 37 

5. Definitions of the Tenses 38 

6. Forms of the Verb 38 

7. Synopsis of Tense, Form, and Voice 39 

8. Person and Number of the Verb 40 , 

9. Auxiliary Verbs 41 

10. Conjugation of the Verb to be 42 

11. Conjugation of tlie Verb to have 43 

CHAPTER VI. Participials and Modes (44-50). 

1. Exercises on Participials 44 

2. The Modes 45 

3. Indicative and Potential jNIodcs 46 

4. Subjunctive and Requisitive Modes 47 

5. Imperative Mode 48 

6. Use of Participials and Modes 48-49 

7. Recognition of the Properties of Verbs 50 

CHAPTER VII. Conjugation (51-60). 

1. Participials 51 

2. Indicative Mode . 51-53 

3. Potential Mode 53-55 

4. Subjunctive Mode 55-57 

5. Requisitive Mode 57-59 

6. Imperative Mode 60 

7. Passive Voice 60 

CHAPTER VIII. Prepositions (61-63). 

1. Definition and Exercises 61-62 

2. Models and Exercises 62-63 

CHAPTER IX. Conjunctions (64). 

I. Definition and Exercises • . . 64 



GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

English Grammar treats of the elements of the Enghsh language. 

Ihese elements relate to words and sentences, and hence Grammar is 
usually divided into four parts, viz.: i. Orthography; 2. Etymology; 
3. Syntax ; and 4. Prosody. 

Orthography treats of sounds, letters and syllables, and teaches the con- 
ventional modes of representing w^ords by letters. 

Etymology treats of the classification and properties of words, and also 
of the roots and affixes of v^^hich words are composed. 

Syntax treats of the construction and analysis of sentences, and of the 
interrelation and corresponding forms of elements and words. It includes 
analysis, parsing, and false syntax, 

Prosody treats of quantity, accent and versification, and of the laws of 
harmony in metrical compositions. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 



First— 



r 



I. SUBSTAN- 



1. Konns. 



Principals :.. <( 



Second — 



Accessories : . 



TIVES. ^ 

2. Pronouns 

r 

II. ATTRIBU- j 3. Verbs 

TIVES. ) 

( 4. Interjections* . 

I III. DETERMI- 1 ^* Adjectives . . . . 
6. Adverbs 



NATIVES. 



r 



IV. CONNEC- 
TIVES. 



7. Prepositions. . . 

8. Conjunctions. . . 



a. Proper. 

b. Common. 

c. Participial. 

a. Personal. 

b. Adjective. 

a. 1 ransitive. 

b. Intransitive. 

c. Copulative. 
(See below.) 

] a. Qualifying. 
' b. Limiting. 
I a. Circumstantial. 
• b. Intensive. 

j a Co-ordinate. 
> b. Subordinate. 



* Remark. — Words which express emotion are called Interjections. 
They are generally condensed exclamative sentences, as, A/as:=0 7ne lasso 
■=oh weary me ! Zounds^=^I swear by God^s wounds/ Good'bye=^God 
be with you ! Farewell=^7?iay you fare (go) well! Adieu^=/ commit you 
to God! 

An Attributive is a word which expresses what is ascribed to some 
object. As Interjections express strong feeling as manifested by the 
speaker or writer, they are, in their very nature, Attributives. 

(7) 



PROPERTIES OF WORDS. 



I. Person 



Nouns . . . 
Pronouns 
Verbs .-..- 



II. Number 



Nouns 

Pronouns 

Verbs 



I. Nouns . 



III. Gender . 



2. Pronouns 
I. Nouns . .- 



IV. Case 



V. Comparison. 



2. Pronouns 

1. Adjectives 

2. Adverbs 



First Person. 
Second Person. 
Thud Person. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Masculine. 
Feminine. 
Neuter. 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 



VI. Voice. Trans. Verbs. 



1. Active. 

2. Passive. 



VII. Tense. 



VIII. Form. 



IX. Mode. 



Verbs 



( I. Present, Past, Future. 

I II. Present Perf., Past Perf., Future Perf. 



X. Division of Verbs 



( I. Common. 
Verbs . < 2. Progressive. 
( 3. Emphatic. 

fi. Indicative. 

I 2. Potential. 

Verbs. <J 3. Subjunctive. 

I 4. Requisitive. 

1^5. Imperative. 

The Participials. 
The Finite Verb. 



li 



(8) 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 
KEVIEW. 

A Sentence is a word or a combination of words in which 
something is said of an object. 

The component parts of a sentence are the Subject and the 
Predicate. 

We have found that the subject may be — 

I. A Proper noun, that is, a word or a group of words 
denoting a definite object. {Cf. II Chxle^ chap. /.) 

II. A Common Noun, that is, a word denoting an indefi- 
nite object. (6/. // Circle^ chap. II.) 

III. A Participial Noun, that is, a word denoting an act 
or state. ( Cf. Il Circle, chap. III.) 

IV. A Personal Pronoun, that is. a word showing the 
relation of an object to the speaker. [Cf. II Circle, chap. IV.) 

l^^JVbuns and Pro7iouns are called Substantives, because 
they always de7iote substantial beings. 

Exercise I. 



^ Let the pupil copy the following sentences^ mark the sub- 
jects, and tell what kind of words they are : 

1. The avenues were hned with grenadiers. 

2. The streets were kept clean by cavalry. 

3. The peers were marshalled by heralds. 

4. The judges attended in their vestments of state. 

5. The gray old walls were hung with scarlet. 

6. The long galleries were crowded by anxious auditors. 
"^^ Let the pupil also select all the nouns, pronouns, verbs, 

adjectives and adverbs /r^;;^ the above sente?ices. 



10 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We have also found that the predicate may be — 

1. An Intransitive Verb, that is, a word which expresses 
an energy that does not pass out of the object which 
manifests it. {Cf, II Circle, chap, VII.) 

2. A Transitive Verb, that is, a word which expresses an 
energy that passes out of the object which manifests 
it to some other object. {^Cf. as above.) 

Exercise II. 

^^Let the pupil copy the following; extract, mark the subjects 
a7id predicates, and select all the transitive and intransitive 
verbs from it. 

The column came within ten miles of Fort du Quesne, 
marching along the Monongahela in regular array, drums 
beating and colors flying. In ascending a little slope, with a 
deep ravine and thick underbrush on either side, they sud- 
denly encountered the Indians lying in ambush. The terrible 
war whoop resounded on every side. In their fright, the 
British regulars huddled together, and, by platoons, fired at 
random against the rocks and trees. The Virginia troops 
sprang into the forest and fought the savages in Indian style. 

Washington seemed everywhere present. An Indian chief 
with his braves singled him out especially. Four balls passed 
through his clothes. Two horses were shot from under him. 
Fifteen years after the battle of Braddock's Field, this old 
Indian chief came a *Mong way" to see the Virginia colonel 
at whom he had fruitlessly fired his rifle fifteen times. Wash- 
ington never received a wound in battle. 

l^ Let the pupil also select from this extract all the objective 
and adverbial elements. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR • 11 

We further found that a transitive verb may be Hmited by — 

1. The Direct Object, that is, the noun or pronoun denot- 
ing the object on which the act expressed by the verb 
immediately terminates. (Q^ // Circle^ chap, VIII.) 

2. The Indirect Object, that is, the noun or pronoun 
denoting the object to or for which the act is done. 
[Cf. same as above.) 

Exercise III. 

^^Let the pupil select the direct a7id the indirect objects 
from the following sefitences : 

1. The merchant allows them no credit. 

2. My friend bought me a fine canary. 

3. The porter denied him admittance. 

4. Henry bought his brother a farm. 

5 The president offered John a commission. 

6. The teacher promised his pupils a holiday. 

7. His orchard yielded him a large crop. 

8. I paid him the debt a short time ago. 

9. The citizens provided their visitors an entertainment. 
10. The farmer will sell you his horses. 

A substantive may denote males ^ females^ or objects without 
sex, that is, a substantive may be — 

1. Of the Masculine Gender, that is, it may denote a 
male, or an object thought to be a male. {Cf. II 
Circle, chap. V.) 

2. Of the Feminine Gender, that is, it may denote a 
female, or an object thought to be a female. {Cf,, 
same as above.^ 

3. Of the Neuter Gender, that is, it may denote an object 
having no sex, or to which no sex is attributed. {^Cf 
same as above.) 



1^ THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise IV, 



""Let the piifil select the substantives from the following 
extract and tell their ge?ider. 

Old ocean trembles, thunder cracks the skies, 
Air teems with shapes and tell-tale spectres rise ; 
Night's paltering hags their fearful orgies keep, 
And faithless guilt unseals the lips of sleep ; 
Time yields his trophies up, and death restores 
The moulder'd victims of his voiceless shores. 
The fireside legend and the faded page, 
The crime that cursed, the deed that blessed the age, 
All, all come forth — the good to charm and cheer, 
To scourge bold vice, and start the generous tear ; 
With pictured folly gazing fools to shame, 
And guide young glory's foot along the path of fame. 

A Substantive may be limited by — 

1. A Qualify ing Adjective, that is, a word expressing a 
quality of the object denoted by the limited noun. 
{Cf I Circle, chap. VI I.) 

2. A Limiting Adjective, that is, a word telling which 
object or how many objects the hmited noim denotes. 
{Cf II Circle, chap, IX.) 

3. A Possessive, that is, a substantive which attributes 
something to the object denoted by the limited noun. 
[Cf II Circle, chap, X.) 

4. An Appositive, that is, a noun placed after a noun or 
pronoun to distinguish the object denoted by the 
limited noun or pronoun, from some other object of 
the same name. {Cf sa?ne as above.) 

5. A Noun used Adjectively, that is, a noun denoting 
some quality or trait of the object denoted by the 
limited noun. {Cf, same as above.) 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

Exercise V. 

^Let the pupil select all the Adjective Elements and tell 
what words they limit : 

1. The mocking-bird flies around his mate with his tail 
widely expanded. 

2. His beautiful wings are gently raised; he bows to his 
love, opens his bill and pours forth his melody. 

3. They are not the soft sounds of the flute, but the 
sweeter notes of nature's own music. 

4. There is probably no bird in the world that posseses 
all the musical qualifications of this king of song, all 

derived from nature's self. 

5. Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost! 
Ye wild birds sporting round the eagle's nest ! 
Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm ! 
Ye hghtnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! 
Ye signs and wonders of the elements ! 
Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise ! 

1^" Verbs ^;/^/ Interjections are r<^/Zf'^ Attributives, because 
they ahvays i7?ipute some act or quality to the object to zuhich 
they refer, 

A Verb may be limited by — 

1. A Circumstantial Adverb, that is, a word expressing 
place ^ time or caicse. {Cf. II Circle, chap. XI. ~) 

2. An Intensive Adverb, that is, a word expressing 
simply ?na?t?ier, quantity or degree. ( Cf. sa?ne as above.) 

3. A Noun of Quantity, that is, a noun denoting time, 
value, price, distance, measure, or manner. ( Cf. II Circle, 
chap. XII.) 

4. A Participial Noun, that is, a word expressing an act 
or state, and, at the same time, showmg manner^ pur- 
pose, consequence, extent, or respect wherein, ( Cf, same 
as above,) 



14 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VI. 

^yZet the pupil select the Adverbial elements from the fol 

lowing and tell which word they limit. 

1. The scythe Ues gUttering in the dewey wreath 
Of tedded grass, mingled with fading flowers 
That yester-morn bloomed waving in the breeze. 

2. Calmness seems throned on yon unmoving cloud. 

3. The blackbird's note comes mellower from the dale; 
And sweeter from the sky the gladsome lark 
Warbles his heaven-timed song. 

4. So doth the greater glory dim the less : 
A substitute shines brightly as a king, 
Until a king be by; and then his state 
Empties itself as doth an inland brook 
Into the main of waters. 

^^ Adjectives a?id Adverbs are called Determinatives, be- 
cause they always determine the application of the word which 
they limit. 

A Determinative may be limited by — 

1. All Intensive Adverb, that is, an adverb which tells 
the intensity ofa quality or act. ( Cf. II Circle, chap XL) 

2. Comparison, that is, a change in the form of an 
adjective or adverb to express its relative intensity. 
(^Cf same as above.) 

Exercise VII. 
^^^Let the pupil select all the intensive words and inten- 
sive forms //w;/ the following : 

1. The best men sometimes act rather foolishly. 

2. He came so very near falling that he could scarcely 
recover himself. 

3. The oftener I meet him the more I am pleased. 

4. The most successful men are not always the most 
cautious. 

5. That very boy was struck immediately above the eye. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

We found the forms of the noun^ profioun^ verb, and the 
limiting adjectives this and that, to change to express — 

1. The Singular Number, that is, that the word relates 
to a single thing or to a collection or group regarded 
as a single thing. [Cf. II Circle, chap. IV.) 

2. The Plural Number, that is, that the word refers to 
two or more objects or to a collection or group re- 
garded in its parts. {Cf. satne as above,) 

Exercise VIII. 

^* Tell the Number of the nou?is, pronouns, verbs a?id ad- 
jectives in the following setitences : 

1. Water is as indispensable to life as air itself. 

2. All animals depend on this element for existence. 

3. This element of water is supplied by the sea. 

4. The sea is the birthplace of the clouds and rivers. 

5. The sea is a perpetual source of health. 

6. The heavens drop fatness from the sea. 

7. Its agency is omnipresent ; its vigilance is omniscient. 

8. The sea spins our thread and weaves our cloth. 

9. Through the sea, men level mountains and raise 
valleys. 

ID. The sea keeps the mills and factories in motion. 
}^^ Let the pupils change the singular sentences into J?lural ones. 



CHAPTER 11. 
COPULATIVE VERBS. 

1. The Copula and Attributes. 
Exercise I. 
t^^ Write the following senfe?ices on the blackboard : 

1. Milton was a poet. 

2. Napoleon was a w^arrior. 

3. That man is a physician. 

4. Henry will be a great painter. 

5. William is a fine scholar. 
I^^Ask such questions as these — 

Milton was what? (Let pupils answer.) Napoleon was 
what? That man is w//<^// Henry will be ^//^// William 
is what ? We thus find that the words poet^ warrior, physi- 
cian, painter, and scholar tell us what Milton, Napoleon, man, 
Henry and WilHam are. The words was, is, and will be, 
express the act by which the mind imputes these qualities to 
the subjects. 

Remark i. — In sentences in which transitive and intransitive verbs were 
used, the objects denoted by the subject were represented as putting forth 
certain energies, but tlie mental activity by which the assert on was made, 
was only implicit. The verb asserted some being, action, or state of the 
object denoted by the subject, but not explicitly. In the present chapter, the 
asscrtio7t is made explicit, and v;e shall therefore treat of copulative verbs. 

Remark 2. — A sentence is said to be a thought expressed tn words. 
As the predicate in a definition must explicate the subject, it is pertinent to 
ask: What is a thought? Unless ^\q: Vo^xm. thought is clearer to our 
apprehension than the term sentence^ we shall be no wiser by virtue of the 
definition. A thought is the result of thinking. But what is thinking ? 
Thinking is an act of the mind by which some act^ state, quality, or other 
attribute is imputed to an object. This brings us to our former definition, 
that **a sentence is a word or words in which something is said of an 
object." 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

Remark 3 — If we now analyze our definition of thinking, we find that 
it contains two parts : 1st. The thinking itself ; 2d. What is thought. As 
predication now becomes explicit, this thinking is expressed through a 
distinct class of verbs called copulative verbs, and what is thought is ex- 
pressed through nounsy adjectivesy pronouns and participles, called 
attributes. 

Remark 4. — The pupil should now write the analysis of the sentences 
in Ex. I., using the following symbols : * 

S==subject; P=predicate ; a=adjective element; o=ob- 
jective element; v=adverbial element; P^=predicate, when 
the assertion is explicitly expressed; att=:attribute ; cop= 
copula. + shows the connection between copula and attri- 
bute. 

S=Milton. 

( (cop)=was 

'• ^ P2=: ) + 

( (att)=poet I (a)=a 

S=Henry. 

C (cop)=will be * 

\ (att)=painter { [^JZg^eat 

Exercise II. 

^^^Let each pupil compose five sentences containing a subject, 
copula and attribute, and write the analysis of them according to 
the foregoing models. 

Remark. — ^The sentences should be copied on the board and carefully 
criticised. 



* Note. — This formula is used in some of the St. Louis Branch High 
Schools. 



18 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 
^^Let the following sentences he written on the blackboard: 

1. Strawberries are delicious. 

2. Snow is white. 

3. The sky is blue. 

4. Boys are mischievous. 

5. Kittens are frolicsome. 

I^^Ask what quality is imputed to Strawberries ? Snow ? 
The Sky / Boys ? Kittens ? 

"^Let each pupil write the analysis of the above sentences. 

Exercise IV. 
^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard 
and be diagrammed : 

1. It is I. 

2. I am he. r s=It. 

3. I am I. \ C (cop)=is 



4. Thou art he. 1 ?'= { + 

5. Thou art she. 



[ ( (att) = I 



Remark. — The pronouns /, he and she identify the subject, and thus 
make it explicits They are attributes. 

Exercise V. 
^Let the following se?itences be written on the blackboard : 

1. The hills grow old. 

2. The family have fallen sick. 

3. The man's face became crimson. 

4. The small boy became a large man. 

5. The distressed child continues sad. 

6. The old man remains cheerful. 

f S=hnv / (a)=The 
rsmall 
=became 

+ ( (a)=a 
. man < ) ; , 

( (a)=large 




THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Remark. — Such verbs as grow and become express the transition of an 
object from one state to another, while continues and remains show that 
the state of an object does not change. They are copulative verbs, and 
require attributes to complete their meaning. 

Exercise VI. 
^^Lef the following sentences he writtefi on the board : 

1. The fields look green. 

2. William seemed angry. 

3. The sun shines bright. 

4. The breezes blow soft. 

5. The thief turned pale. 

6. He appeared sad. 

Remark. — Look^ seems and appeared assert, not that certain objects 
ARE green, angry or sad, but that they only seem so to the speaker or 
writer. Look, seem and appear are copulative verbs. 

Exercise VII. 
Let the following sente?ices be written on the blackboard : 

1. The people elected him president. 

2. They named him Samson. 

3. The men thought him a maniac. 

4. They accounted him a scholar. 

5. He was chosen chairman. 

6. The society made the sage old man an honor- 
ary member. 

S=people I fa)=The 

C (cop)=elected | (o)=him 

( (att)=:president 

^ S=society ( (a)=The 
I C (a)=the 

r \ ( (cop)=made | (o)=man < (a)=:sage 

^ ^' = ) "^ fa^=an ' 1^)=^^^ 

/ (att)=member < \\ \ 
^ ^ ^ ( (a)=honorary 



20 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — Some verbs are transitive and copulative at the same time, 
inasmuch as they express an act which passes from the subject to ihe 
object ^ and also show that the object is changed through this act into some- 
thing else. Thus, through the suffrages of the people, a citizen is ele- 
vated into a high office, and becomes a state dignitary. 

Exercise VIII. 
^^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

1. Pitt made a venal age unanimous. 

2. The farmer painted his buildings white. 

3. The lady colored her shawl red. 

4. The people thought him honest. 

5. Her friends considered her pretty. 

{ S=Pitt 

\ p,_ ( (^^P)=^^_J^ I (^)=^g^{ (a)=venal. 

! ( (att)=unanimous. 

Remark. — The verbs made, painted, colored, thought and considered 
express acts by which objects are transformed so as to possess new quali- 
ties and be something else. Adjectives express the new characteristic. 

Exercise IX. 
^^Let the following sentences be written o?i the blackboard : 

1. The boy was writing a letter. 

2. The pictures were considered beautiful. 

3. The children were playing. 

4. The bees were humming a busy song. 

5. The letter should have been written. 

^ S=boy I I a)=The. 
J ( (cop)=was. 

[^ ( (att)==writing | (o)=letter | (a)=a. 

^ S=letter | ra)=The. 

j ( (cop)=:should have been. 

^ ( (att)=written. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

Remark. — We shall treat the subject of participles more fully in subse- 
quent lessons, when we come to consider the voice, mode and forms ot 
the verb. 

Exercise X. 

ly Z<f/ the followifig seiiiefices be written on the blackboard : 
Transitive Verbs. Copulative Verbs. 

1. John tastes the honey. The honey tastes sweet. 

2. Mary smells the rose. The rose smells fragrant 

3. George looks at the fields. The fields look green. 

4. John feels the table. The table feels smooth. 

5. Henry rmgs the bell loudly. The bell rings loud. 

Remark i. — If we carefully examine the foregoing sentences, we find 
the distinctive differcRces between transitive and intransitive verbs on the 
one side, and copulative verbs on the other, viz : 

A Transitive or an Intransitive verb expresses an energy manifested by 
the object denoted by the subject, while a copulative verb expresses explic- 
itly an energy manifested by the writer or speaker. All verbs therefore 
show how objects exist or act, or how they are thought to exist or act. 

Remark 2. — The copulative verb asserts attributes as abiding^ as 
becomings or as merely seeming to be. 

Exercise XL 
^ff^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 
Permanent. Changing, or Seeming. 

1. John is good. John becomes good, or seems good. 

2. Henry is old. Henry grows old, or appears old. 

3. The door stands open. The door opens, or seems open. 

4. The fields are green. The fields become or look green. 

Remark. — When an object is presented, the mind seizes it immedi- 
ately, and in the energy it puts forth to know it, it brings it under some 
known category. This category is called an attribute. Hence an attri- 
bute is a word expressing the act, state, quality, or condition which is 
imputed to an object. 



22 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

From the foregoing examples and remarks, we may infer 

the following — 

Defii^ition. — A word which expresses the exist- 
ing^ becoming^ or seeming of an object, and re- 
quires a noun^ pronoun^ adjective^ or participle to 
show what it is^ how it exists^ or what it 'becomes or 
seems^ is called a Copulative verb. 

2. Use of Attributes, 

Exercise I. 

1^^ Write ten sentences tellifig what the following objects 
are : 

1. A pen is 

2. Desks are 

3. A river is 

4. Hills are 

5. A letter is 

6. The earth is 

7. An Elementary sound is 

8. Arithmetic is 

9. Reading is 

10. An elephant is = 

Remark. — It is somewhat difficult to find suitable attributes telling 
what certain things are. But if the teacher will think, she may help the 
pupil. Thus, What is a pen? A pen is an instrument. What is an 
instrument? An instrument is some means invented to effect a purpose. 
What is the difference between an instrument and a machine? A machine 
is an instrument which regulates moving power. Teaching is stimulation 
and direction, and hence teachers must suggest the line of thought, and 
thereby quicken the intellect into activity. In order to learn, children 
must THINK. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

Exercise II. 

' Write ten sentences^ using qualifying adjectives as attri- 
butes : 

Exercise III. 
' Write ten sentences^ using pronouns as attributes. 

Exercise IV. 
* Write ten sentences^ using copulative verbs expressing the 
changing of an object from one state to another. 

Exercise V. 

^^^ Write ten sentences^ using copulative verbs expressing 
seemiftg. 

Exercise VI. 

1^^ Write ten sentences, using verbs which are both copula- 
tive a?id transitive at the same time. 

Exercise VII. 
1^^ Write ten se?ttences, using the same verb, first, as transi- 
tive, and, secondly, as copulative. 

3. Recognition of Copulas and Attributes. 
Exercise I. 

^^^ Diagram the following sentences : 

1. Talent is something, but tact is everything. 

2. Talent is serious, sober, grave, and respectable. 

3. Tact is all that, and more too. 

4. It is not a sixth sense, but it is the life of all the five. 

5. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging taste, the 
keen smell, and the lively touch. 

6. Tact is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of 
all difficulties, the remover of all obstacles. 



24 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise II. 
^^^ Diagram the following sentences : 

I. Fear not: it is I. 2. I am he. 3. I am he that liveth. 
4. The inner revelation, I am I, Hke lightning flashed and 
stood before me; in that moment I had seen myself as I, for 
the first time and forever. 

5. The baby new to earth and sky, 
Has never thought that this is L 

Exercise III. 
^^ Diagram the following sentences : 

1. The boy suddenly became very sick. 

2. The sick boy grew worse. 

3. The heavens grew black above us. 

4. What seemed strange now appears clear. 

5. The fields look fresh and green. 

6. The night grew darker and darker. 

7. Black feels rough, and white feels smooth. 

8. The door stands open, and the work remains unfinished. 

9. He became a man while he seemed a boy. 
10. Oh heavenly muse! Such thy verse appears, 

So sweet, so charming to my ravished ears. 

Exercise IV. 
"^^ Diagram the following sefitences : 

1. The people constitute Congress the law-making power. 

2. The President appoints certain persons consuls. 

3. The Romans made Cicero, the great orator, consul. 

4. The sufferers deputed him to represent them. 

5. The borough elected him a member of parliament. 

6. Wise were the kings who never chose a friend 
Till with full cups they had unmasked his soul 
And seen the bottom of his deepest thought. 



CHAPTER III. 
PRES'CIPAL PARTS OF THE VERB. 

Exercise I. 

l^Let the followi?ig be written on the blackboard and the 
pupils be required to copy it : 

Present. Past. Past Participle. Pres. Active Part'ie. 

am, was, been, being, 

arise, arose, arisen, arising. 

bear, bore, borne, bearing. 

beat, beat, beaten, beating, 

beget, begat, begotten, begetting. 

begin, began, begun, beginning. 

bid, bade, bidden, bidding, 

bite, bit, bitten, biting, 

blow, blew, blown, blowing, 

break, broke, broken, breaking. 

^^The class should learn these forms so as to be able to 
repeat them thus : Present, break; past, broke; past parti- 
ciple, broken; present-active participle, breaking. 

We thus find that verbs have four general forms which are 
called principal parts, and are named — 

1. The Present. 

2. The Past. 

3. The Past Participle. 

4. The Present-active Participle. 

Exercise. II. 

I^Let the pupil write sentences, showing the correct use 
of these forms, as : The wind blows more furiously now than 
it blew yesterday. 

(25) 



26 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise III. 

^The Roman numerals may now be used to denote the 
parts, thus: I=the Present; IIn=the Past; III=the Past 
Participle; IV=the Present-active Participle. 

' Copy and learn as before. 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


chide, 


chid. 


chidden. 


chiding. 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


choosing. 


do, 


did. 


done, 


doing. 


draw. 


drew, 


drawn. 


drawing. 


drive, 


drove. 


driven. 


driving. 


drink, 


drank. 


drunk, 


drinking . 


fall, 


fell. 


fallen. 


falling. 


fly, 


flew. 


flown. 


flying. 


flow. 


flowed. 


flowed. 


flowing. 


forsake, 


forsook. 


forsaken, 


forsaking. 


freeze, 


froze. 


frozen. 


freezing. 



Remark. — The compounds oi do are misdo, overdo^ and undo; oi fall 
is befall; and oi for 2iXQ forbear^ forbid, forget dind forsake. 



Let the class be required to give these forms as before, 
and also to write sentences showing their correct use. 

Exercise IV. 
Write on the blackboard and let the pupil copy : 



I. 


IL 


IIL 


IV. 


get, 


got, 


gotten. 


getting. 


give. 


gave, 


given. 


giving. 


grow, 


grew. 


grown. 


growing. 


hide. 


hid, 


hidden, 


hiding. 


know. 


knew. 


known. 


knowing. 


lie. 


lay. 


lain. 


lying. 


lay. 


laid, 


laid. 


laying. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



27 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


ride. 


rode, 


ridden. 


riding. 


ring, 


rang, 


rung, 


ringing. 


rise. 


rose. 


risen. 


rising. 


see, 


saw, 


seen. 


seeing. 


shake. 


shook. 


shaken, 


shaking, 


set, 


set, 


set. 


setting. 


sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


sitting. 


slay. 


slew, 


slain. 


slaying. 


slide, 


slid, 


slidden, 


sliding. 


smitq 


smote, 


smitten, 


smiting. 



Remark. — Give is compounded with for and mis^ as forgive, misgive; 
grow with out in outgrow; know and see vf\\hjore in foreknow dsid. foresee, 
^^^ Repeat forms ^ write sentences^ and correct^ as in previous 
exercises. 

Exercise V. 
' Write on the boards and let pupils copy : 



\ 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


speak. 


spoke, 


spoken, 


speaking. 


steal. 


stole. 


stolen, 


stealing. 


stride. 


strode. 


stridden, 


striding. 


strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


striving. 


swear. 


swore. 


sworn. 


swearing. 


swim, 


swam. 


swum. 


swimming. 


take, 


took. 


taken. 


taking. 


tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


tearing. 


thrive, 


throve, 


thriven. 


thriving. 


throw, 


threw. 


thrown. 


throwing. 


tread. 


trod. 


trodden. 


treading. 


wear, 


wore. 


worn, 


wearing. 


write, 


wrote. 


written. 


writing. 



Remark. — ^^^/^(f has the compounds betake, mistake , overtake, retake 
and undertake, 

^^" Repeat forms ^ write sentences^ and corf ect as before. 



28 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 







Exercise VI. 




1^ Write 

I. 
become. 


0?l 


the blackboard^ and let pupils copy : 

II. III. IV. 
became, become, becoming. 


come, 




came. 


come. 


coming. 


overcome, 




overcame. 


overcome, 


overcoming. 


overrun. 




overran. 


overrun. 


overrunning. 


outrun. 
Caution. — : 


outran, 
Be careful not to say 


outrun, 
, he cotjie or he run. 


outrunning. 



Exercise VII. 
Write on the blackboardy and let pupils copy . 



Present. 


Past. 


Present. 


Past. 


abide, 


abode. 


behold. 


beheld. 


bind. 


bound. 


bleed. 


bled. 


breed, 


bred. 


cling. 


clung. 


feed. 


fed. 


fight, 


fought. 


find. 


found. 


fling. 


flung. 


grind, 


ground. 


hold, 


held. 


lead. 


led. 


meet, 


met. 


read. 


read. 


shoot, 


shot. 


shrink, 


shrunk. 


sing, 


sung. 


sink, 


sunk. 


sling, 


slung. 


slink. 


slunk. 


speed. 


sped. 


spin. 


spun. 


spring. 


sprung. 


stand, 


stood. 


stick, 


stuck. 


sting, 


stung. 


stink. 


stunk. 


strike. 


struck. 


string. 


strung. 


swing. 


swung. 


win. 


won. 


wind. 


wound. 


wring. 


wrung. 



Remark. — The Past Participle in these verbs is like the Past. The 
Present-active Participle is formed by annexing ing to the Present, omitting 
silent e in abide and strike^ and doubling n in spin and win, 

"" Repeat forms y write sentences ^ and correct as before. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



29 



Exercise VIII. 
8^* The following verbs have double forms for the Past and 
the Fast Participle : 



I. 

awake, 
bereave, 
cleave, 
crow, 

dig, 

eat, 

hang, 

kneel, 

shine, 

stave, 

work, 



II. 

awoke, awaked, 
bereft, bereaved, 
clove, cleft, 
crew, crowed, 
dug, digged, 
ate, eat, 
hung, hanged, 
knelt, kneeled, 
shone, shined, 
stove, staved, 



III. 

awoke, awaked, 
bereft, bereaved, 
cloven, cleft, 
crowed, 
dug, digged, 
eaten, eat. 
hung, hanged, 
knelt, kneeled, 
shone, shined. 
stove, staved, 
wrought, worked. 



wrought, worked, 
\^ Repeat forms a?id write sentefices^ showing the correct use 
of these double forms. 

Exercise IX. 
5^^ The following verbs annex 6. or t in the Past and Past 
Participle, and have a differ e7it vowel sou?id i?i these forins : 



I. 


n. 


I. 


II. 


beseech. 


besought. 


bring. 


brought 


buy. 


bought. 


catch. 


caught. 


creep, 


crept. 


deal. 


dealt. 


feel. 


felt. 


flee. 


fled. 


hear, 


heard. 


keep. 


kept. 


leave, 


left. 


loose. 


lost. 


seek. 


sought. 


sell. 


sold. 


shoe. 


shod. 


sleep. 


slept. 


teach, 


taught. 


tell, 


told. 


think, 


thought. 


weep. 


wept. 


may. 


might. 


can, 


could. 


shall, 


should. 


will. 


would. 



30 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark i. — May, can, shall 2it\di willhdiwt no participles. 

Remark 2. — The Past Participle is like the Past in the other verbs. 
The Present-active Participle is formed by annexing ing to the Present, 
dropping silent e in leave and loose, but retaining it in shoe 2Xi.^jlee. 

^^ Repeat forms and write sentences. 

Exercise X. 

Verbs ending in the sound of d or t form the Past and Past 
Participle by annexing the syllable ed. The ed^ however, is 
omitted in bursty cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, put, rid, set, shed, 
shut, spread and thread. Verbs ending in nd have t in p. and 
p.p., as send, sent; lend, lent; rend, rent; spe7id, spent. Lay, 
pay and say have laid, paid diud said in the p. and pp. Nearly 
all other verbs form the p. and pp. by annexing d or ed to 
the Present. 

Verbs are usually classed in regard to the formation of their 
principal parts into — 

I. Regular Verbs, and 
II. Irregular Verbs. 

Regular Verbs are such verbs as form their Past and Past 
Participle by annexing d or ed to the Present. All other 
verbs are called Irregular Verbs. 

Exercise XI. 

^^Let the pupil write the Principal Parts of the followitig 
verbs : 

Guess, chant, reach, march, walk, talk, drink, watch, add, 
rent, crochet, croquet, risk, and go. 

Exercise XII. 

^^Let the pupil write the Principal Parts of the verbs con- 
tained ift the reading lesson, 

I^^Continue this exercise until the class can give the prin- 
cipal Tjarts of any verb in the reading lesson. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

CHAPTER IV. 
THE ACTIVE AXD THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

Exercise I. 
^^^ Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 
Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

1. A man struck a boy. A boy was struck. 

2. Some boys threw stones. Stones were thrown. 

3. The oarsmen row the boat. The boat is rowed. 

4. Oxen draw wagons. Wagons are drawn. 

5. The hunter shot a deer. A deer was shot. 
^^Ask such questions as these : 

What did a man do ? What was done to a boy ? 

Remark. — In the above sentences, struck^ threw ^ row, draw and shot 
express acts which affect the objects denoted by boy, stones, boat, wagons 
and deer. In the passive voice the words denoting the objects affected are 
used as subjects, while the objects by whom these acts are performed are 
not named. The subject in the passive voice denotes the recipient of 
the act expressed by the verb. 

Exercise IL 

^^ Let the following senteftces be written on the blackboard: 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

1. John wrote a letter. A letter was written. 

2. Birds build nests. Nests are built. 

3. The man made a machine. A machine was made. 

4. He will paint a picture. A picture will be painted. 

5. They sing songs. Songs are sung. 

Remark. — The vetbs wrote, build, made, paint aud sing express acts 
which produce the pbjects denoted by letter j nests, machine, picture and 
songs. In the passive voice these words are used as subjects, and denote 
the effect of the acts expressed by these verbs. 



32 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 
^^^ Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

1. He sees the bird. The bird is seen. 

2. You hear the singing. The singing is heard. 

3. They touch the desk. The desk is touched. 

4. She tastes the fruit, The fruit is tasted. 

5. I smell this flower. This flower is smelled. 

Remark. — I'he verbs see, hear, touch, taste aud smell express acts by 
which the objects denoted by bird, singing, desk, fruit -axi^^ flower are cog- 
nized. In the passive voice, these words become the subjects and denote 
the objects cognized. 

Exercise IV. 

^^Let the following sente?ices be written on the blackboard 
a?id diagrammed : 

Act. V. I. They made him chairman. 
Pass. V. He was made chairman. 

Act. K 2. She appointed him her executor. 
Pass. V. He was appointed her executor. 

Act. V, 3. He named his daughter Florence. 
Fass. V. His daughter was named Florence. 

Act. V. 4. I consider her a good scholar. 
Pass. V. She is considered a good scholar. 

Act. V. 5. We elected him president. 
Pass. V. He was elected president. 

r S=daughter | (a)=His 
^ was 

I + 

P2=: ^ named 

I + 

[^ Florence. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

Exercise V. 

^^Let the following sentences be written on the blackhoard 
and diagrammed : 

1. They considered him learned. 
He was considered learned. 

2. You diink him [to be] rich. 
He is thought [to be] rich. 

3. They did not regard beauty necessary. 
Beauty was not regarded necessary. 

4. My divinity makes my misfortune eternal. 
My misfortune is made eternal. 

5. They painted the door blue. 
The door was painted blue. 

'^ S=Beauty 

C was 
+ 
^ p2=: J regarded | (v)=not 

(_ [^ necessary. 

From the foregoing exercises and remarks we may make 
the following 

INFERENCES : 

1. Transitive verbs express acts which affect objects, produce 

objects, or cognize objects. 

2. The word denoting the doer of the act maybe suppressed; 

the words denoting the objects affected, produced, or 
cognized, may become the subjects, and the form of the 
verb may be changed. 

3. The following definitions may be inferred : 

DKFTNiTioisr I. — Voice is a property of transitive 
verbs wliirli shows the relation of the act expressed 
by the verb to the object denoted by the subject, 
3 



Ut> UI,U^ 


b '*' 


Act 


V. 


Pass, 


V. 


Act, 


V. 


Pass, 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass, 


V. 
f 



34 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DEFiisriTio]^ II. — A transitive verb is in the Active 
Voice when its subject denotes the doer of the act 
expressed by the verb. 

Defintition III. — A transitive verb is in the Pas- 
sive Voice, when its subject denotes the object 
aflTected, produced, or cognized through the act 
expressed by the verb. 

2. Use of Voice. 

^^ Let the pupil change the verbs in the following sentences 
from the active to the passive voice : 

Exercise I. 

1. Well-bred people do not offend the feelings of others. 

2. Self conceited speech pains our hearers. 

3. Such conduct makes children disagreeable. 

4. A polite person enters a room quietly. 

5. Noisy talk mars every one's comfort. 

6. Civility and politeness make us respected. 

Exercise II. 

^^ Let the pupil change the verbs in the following sentences 
fro/n the passive to the active voice : 

1. A rope was soon brought. 

2. The rope was tied to a brave youth. 

3. At last the brink of the precipice was reached. 

4. The eagle's ne^t was seen far below. 

5. The babe was fastened on his back. 

6. He was drawn up over the edge of a cliff. 

3. Recognition of Voice. 

i^^Let the pupil select all the verbs from his reading les- 
sons, and tell whether they have voice; if so^ whether they 
are in the active or the passive voice. 



I 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

CHAPTER V. 

TElSrSE, FORM, PERSOX AND NUMBER, AJSOD 
AUXILIARIES. 

1. Tense. 
Exercise I. 
^^Let the following se7ite?ices be writieii on the blackboard : 
The boy studies his lessons. 
The boy studied his lessons. 
The boy will study his lessons. 
Studies shows what the boy usually does. 
Studied shows what the boy usually did. 
Will study shows what the boy will usually do. 

Remark, — The act of studying is represented by these forms as indefi- 
nite in present, past, or future time. 

Exercise II. 
^ff^Let the following sentences be written 07i the blackboard-: 

The boy is studying his lessons now. 
The boy was studying his lessons yesterday. 
The boy will be studying his lessons to niorroiv. 
Is studying shows what the boy is doing now. 
Was studying shows what the boy was doing at some 
definitely stated past ti7?ie. 

Will be studying show^ what the boy will be doing at 
some definitely '^\dX^^ future time. 

Remark. — The act of studying is represented by these forms as going 
©n in present, past, or future time. 

Exercise III. 

^^Let the pupil write sentences contaiiiing each of the follow- 
ifig verbs in the Present, the Past, and the Future Tenses. 

Write, read, build, see, know, ride, drive, sing, tell, act, 
climb, and go. 



36 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Inferences : 

The form studies shows what usually takes place, while 
is studying, shows what is now transpiring. As both forms 
relate to present time, they are said to be in the Present Tense. 

The form studied shows what usually took place in past 
time, while was studying shows what was transpiring at some 
definitely stated past time. As both forms relate to past time, 
they are said to be in the Past Tense. 

The form will study shows what generally will occur here- 
after, while will be study i?ig shows what will be transpiring at 
some definitely stated future time. As both forms relate to 
future time, they are said to be in the Future Tense. 
Exercise IV. 

^^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

The boy has studied his lessons just now. 

The boy had studied his lessons before you came. 

The boy will have studied his lessons before you leave. 

Has studied shows that the act of studying is completed in 
present time. 

Had studied shows that the act of studying was completed 
prior to some definitely stated past time. 

Will have studied shows that the act of studying will be 
completed prior to some definitely stated future time. 
Exercise V. 

l^Let the following se?ite72ces be written o?t the blackboard : 

The boy has been studying his lesson. 

The boy had been studying his lesson. 

The boy will have been studying his lesson. 

Has been studying shows an act as continuing up to present 
time. 

Had been studying shows an act as continuing up to some 
definitely stated past time. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

Will have been studying shows an act as continuing up to 
some definitely stated future time. 

Inferences : 

As the forms has studied and has been study i?ig show acts 
as completed in present time, they are said to be in the 
Present Perfect Tense. 

As the forms had studied 2indi had been studying show acts 
as completed prior to some definitely stated past time, they 
are said to be in the Past Perfect Tense. 

As the forms luill have studied and will have bee7i studying 
show acts as completed prior to some definitely stated future 
time, they are said to be in the Future Perfect Tense. 

Exercise VI. 

^^^Let the ptcpil write sente?ices containing the following 
verbs in the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future 
Perfect Tenses 

Walk, talk, fly, stand, lie, sit, sleep, eat, throw, grow, thrive, 
sing, and dance. 

Inferences : 

1. We have now found out that the verb relates to time, 
and that this property of verbs is called Tense. Hence — 

Definition. — Tense is a property of verbs which 
shows the relation of an act or assertion to Time. 

2. We have also found that there are two kinds of tenses, viz : 

I. Those tenses which express present, past, or future 
time without reference to any other time, called 
Simple Tenses; and 

II. Those tenses which express present, past, or future 
time as prior to some other present, past, or future 
time, called Relative Tenses. 



38 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Simple Tenses are: i. The Present Tense; 2. The 
Past Tense, and 3. The Future Tense. 

The Relative Tenses are: 4. The Present Perfect Tense; 
5. The Past Perfect Tense, and 6. The Future Perfect Tense. 

The Present Tense shows an act or state as usually taking 
place, or as continuing to take place in present time. 

The Present Perfect Tense « shows an act or state as com- 
pleted in present time, or as continuing up to present time. 

The Past Tense shows that an act or state usually took 
place, or continued to take place in past time. 

The Past Perfect Tense shows that an act or state took 
place, or continued to take place prior to some specified 
past time. 

The Future Tense shows that an act or state will usually 
take place, or will continue to take place in future time. 

The Future Perfect Tense shows that an act or state will 
have taken place, or will have continued to take place prior 
to some specified future time. 

2. Forms of the Verb. 

We have found that each tense is double : 

1. It may express what usually takes place. 

2. It may express what continues to take place. 

The form which shows w^hat usually takes place is called 
the Common Form. 

The form which expresses an act or state as continuing to 
take place, is called the Progressive Form. 

The verb has still another form, in which do or did is com- 
bined with the Present. This form is called the Emphatic 
Form, and is used only in the active voice of the present and 
the past tenses. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



39 



Exercise VII. 
Let the followifig senieiices be written 07i the blackboard : 
1. Present Tense. 



Common. 



I 

Progressive. \ 
Emphatic. 



Common. 



! 

Progressive. | 
Emphatic. 



Common. 



I 

Progressive. | 

Common. \ 
Progressive. 



Common. \ 
Progressive. 

Common. \ 
Progressive. 



A. John builds a house. 

P. A house is built. 

A. John is building a house. 

P. A house is being built. 

A. John does build a house. 

2. Past Tense. 

A. John built a house. 

P. A house was built. 

A. John was building a house. 

P. A house was being built. 

A. John did build a house. 

3. Future Tense. 

A. John will build a house. 

P. A house will be built. 

A. John will be building a house. 

P. A house will be being built. 

4. Present Perfect Tense. 

A. John has built a house. 

P. A house has been built. 

A. John has been building a house. 

5. Past Perfect Tense. 

A. John had built a house. 

P. A house had been built. 

A. John had been building a house. 

6. Future Perfect Tense. 

A. John will have built a house. 

P. A house will have been built. 

A. John will have been building a house. 



40 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thus we find distinct forms for both the common and the 
progressive forms in the simple tenses of both voices. Each 
of the simj)ie tenses of transitive verbs has foiir fornis^ while 
the present and the past each has an additional form. 

There is no progressive form in the passive voice of the 
relative tenses. 

3. Person and Number. 

Exercise VIII. 
^^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

1. I write a letter. We write letters. 

2. Thou writest a letter. You write letters. 

3. He writes a letter. They write letters. 

We thus find that the verb is limited by the person and 
number of the subject, and, in the second and the third per- 
sons singular, the form of the verb is changed to show its 
agreement with the subject. As personal pronouns show the 
limitation of the verb, and have three persons and two num- 
bers {Cf. II Circle, chap, F/), so verbs have likewise three per- 
sons and two numbers. Nouns are always in the third person^ 
except when they denote the person addressed, in which case 
such noun is in the second person, and is called a compella- 
tive, and may be the subject of the verb, if there is no pro- 
noun expressed or demanded by the sense. 



Remark. — The form with thou is used in poetry and prayer, and other 
elevated forms of speech, and usually annexes st, est or t to the Present or 
Past. In the third person singular of the present tense, th or eth is used 
for the same purpose. The form with s is used in the common form, third 
person, singular, of the Present Tense. {Cf, II Circle ^ page 21.) 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

4. Auxiliary Verbs. 
Exercise IX. 
"Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

1. He is writing a letter. 

2. He does write a letter. 

3. He has written a letter. 

4. He will write a letter. 

5. He shall write a letter 

6. He may write a letter. 

7. He can write a letter. 

8. He must write a letter. 

9. Let him write a letter. 

Remark. — The verbs b^, do, have, will, shall, must and let 2x^ called 
Auxiliary Verbs, because they are combined with the principal parts of 
other verbs to express definite relations of thought. Hence — 

Defii^ition. — An Auxiliary Verb is a verb 
which is combined with the principal parts of other 
verbs to express certain definite relations of thought. 
Exercise X. 

^^ Let the pupil learn the following forms of the auxiliary 

verb to do : 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural 

1st Ferson. I do. We do. 

2d Person. Thou dost. You do. 

3^ Person , He does. They do. 

Past Tense 
\st Person. I did. We did. 

2d Ferson. Thou didst. * You did. 

3^ Person. He did. They did. 

Remark. — The verb to do is frequently used in interrogative sentences 
to determine the interrogative form. Thus, in the sentence, Does he sing? 
does expresses inquiry, not e7?ipkasis. This is also the case vviih do in the 
common salutation, How do you do? 



42 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise XI. 

"Let the pupil learn the following forms of the auxiliary 
verb to be : 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

ist Person. I am. We are. 

2d Person. Thou art. You are. 

id Person. He is. ^ They are. 

Past Tense. 
ist Person. I was. We were. 

2d Person. Thou wast. You were 

2^d Person. He was. They were. 

Future Tense. 
\st Person. I shall be. We shall be. 

2d Person. Thou wilt be. You will be. 

3^ Person. He will be. They will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
\st Person. I have been. We have been. 

2d Perso7i. Thou hast been. You have been. 

2^d Person. He has been. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
ist Person. I had been. We had been. 

2d Person. Thou hadst been. You had been. 

2^d Person. He has been. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

ist Person. I shall have been. We shall have been. 

2d Person. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 

3^ Person. He will have been. They will have been. 

Remark. — The pupil should be tested on his knowledge of these forms 

by being required to write certain forms miscellaneously selected. Thus : 

Write the second person singular of the Present Perfect Tense of the verb 

to be. Write the first person plural of the Future Tense of the verb to be. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



43 



Exercise XII. 

"" Lei the pupil learn the following forms of the auxiliary 
verb to have : 

Present Tense. 

Singular, PluraL 

I have. 
Thou hast. 
He has. 

Past Tense. 
I had. 
Thou hadst. 
He had. 

Future Tense. 
I shall have. 
Thou wilt have. 
He will have. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I have had. We have had. 

Thou hast had. You have had. 

He has had. They have had. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
I had had. We had had. 

Thou hadst had. You had had. 

He had had. They had had. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall have had. We shall have had. 

Thou wilt have had You will have had. 
He will have h^ld. They will have had. 

Remark. — The pupil should be drilled in writing certain forms as in 
the foregoing exercises. 



\st Person, 
2d Person, 
2,d Person, 

ist Person, 
2d Person, 
2^d Person, 

ist Person, 
2d Person. 
3^ Person, 

ist Person, 
2d Person, 
2^d Per s 071. 

ist Person, 
2d Person, 
2^d Perso?t, 

ist Person. 
2d Person, 
^d Person. 



We have. 
You have. 
They have. 

We had. 
You had. 
They had. 

We shall have. 
You will have. 
They will have. 



44 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER VI. 
PARTICIPIAL S A]Sri> MODES. 

Exercise I. 
^^Let the following be written on the blackboard : 

Present-active ( to write. Common form. 

Infinitive: ( to be writing. Progressive form. 

Perfect-active ( to have written. Common form. 

Infinitive: ( to have been writing. Progressive Jor^n, 
Present-passive 

Infinitive : to be written. Common foi^m. 

Perfect passive 

Infinitive : to have been written. Common form, 

^g" Let the pupils write the Infinitives ^go, get, give, grow, 
and know. 

Exercise II. 
\^Let the followifig be written 07t the blackboard : 

Present-active Participle : knowing. 
Perfect-active Participle : having known. 
Present-passive Participle : {being ) known. 
Perfect-passive Participle : having been known. 
^^Let the pupils write all the Participles of^tQ, shake, slay, 
slide, and smite. 

Remark. — Infinitives and Participles are called Participials, because 
they partake of the nature of the verb, and at the same time have the form 
and construction of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. On this account they 
are clearly distinguished from the Finite Verb, which changes its form to 
express a correspondence to the number and person of its subject. The 
Present Passive Participle and the Past Participle are almost identical. The 
verbs bear ^x\d freight, however, have distinct forms for each of these Par- 
ticiples. Thus : borne^ born; freighted, fraught. Borne and freighted 
are active, while born zxi^L fraught are passive. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

Exercise III. 
"^Let the following be written on the blackboard : 

1. John sees a star. 

2. John can see a star. 

3. If John sees a star, he will tell you. 

4. John must see the star. 

5. Let John see the star, 
expresses the seeing as real or actual. 

Can see expresses the seeing as a capability. 

If — sees expresses the seeing as conditioning something else. 

Must see expresses the seeing as something demanded. 

Let — see expresses the seeing as something commanded. 

We thus find that an attribute may be thought in five differ- 
ent ways. These ways are called Modes. And since the 
Copulative verb expresses the activity of thinking, mode is a 
property of the copula. Hence we infer the following — 

Defiistitiok. — Mode is a property of the copula, 
or verb, which shows how an attribute is thought. 

If an attribute is thought as real or actual, the verb is said 
to be in the Indicative Mode. 

If an attribute is thought as potentiality, capability, or 
probability, the verb is said to be in the Potential Mode. 

If an attribute is thought as conditioning something else, 
the verb is said to be in the Subjunctive Mode. 

If an attribute is thought as something obligatory^ necessary^ 
essential^ inevitable, or requisite, the, verb may be said to be in 
the Requisitive Mode. 

If an attribute is thought as something depending on the 
will of the speaker or writer, the verb is said to be in the Im- 
perative Mode. 

Remarks. — This treatment of Mode is given as a solution of a 
much-mooted point. It is exhaustive of verb forms. 



46 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 

Exercise IV. 
l^Let the following be writiefi on the blackboard : 

I. Indicative Mode. 
Presefit Tense : We go. 

Past Tense : We went. 

Future Teiise : We shall go. 

Frese7it Perfect Tense : We have gone. 
Past Perfect Tense : We had gone. 
Future Perfect Tense : We shall have gone. 

II. Potential Mode. 

Present . i '• ^^ "^^1 E^^ or we can go. 

( 2. We might go, or we could go. 

P . ^ ( I. We may have gone, or we can have gone. 
^^ * \2, We might have gone, or we could have gone. 

Remark i. — The Indicative Mode has six tenses, while the Potential 
Mode has but two tenses, the Present and the Past. As the Potential 
Mode expresses what is potential and not real, it can not have any perfect 
tenses. If anything potential is realized, it must be expressed by the In- 
dicative Mode. 

Remark 2. — May^ might, can, could, are used to form the Potential 
Mode. Can expresses a capability which the object denoted by the subject 
has the power to manifest, or which this object is susceptible of becoming. 
May GX'i^xe?>^Q?, permission, desire, or contingency , determined by the speakeif 
or writer, but which the object denoted by the subject has the power to 
realize. Both may and cait show that the act, state or quality expressed 
by the predicate is potential in the object denoted by the subject, but may 
shows that the realization of potentiality is dependent on the writer or 
speaker. 

Remark 3. — The Potential Mode has two forms in each tense. The first 
form expresses the potentiality with reference to present or past time inde- 
pendently, while the second form always implies a determining condition. 
Thus, He could go (if he would) ; he might go (if he were permitted). These 
forms, although they contain \\\^ past form of the Auxiliary, nevertheless 
clearly relate to present time. So, too, the second forms in the Past tense 
mean. He might have gone (if he had wanted to go); and. He could hav^ 
gone (if he had been permitted to do so). 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

Exercise V. 
^Let the following be writte7i 07i the blackboard : 
III. Subjunctive Mode. 

Present : If a letter be written 

Past : If a letter were written 

Puture : If a letter should be written 

Present Perfect : If a letter has been written 

Past Perfect : If a letter had been written 

Puture Perfect : If a letter should have been written 

Remark. — Whenever the conditioning clause expresses an attribute as 
doubtful or contingent, the verb takes this conditional form. In condi- 
tional clauses shall is used in the third person, and should in all the per- 
sons to express a mere contingency; as, Jf it SHOULD siiow to-morrow^ I 
Could ttot come, Jf he shall go^ I will accompany him. 

Exercise VI. 
IV. Requisitive Mode. 

^^Let the following be written on the blackboard : 

C I must go. Necessity, 

Presefit : } \ ought to go, or I should go. Obligation, 
( I have to go. Cojnpulsion, 

^ I was to go, or I must have gone. Necessity. 
p . j I ought to have gone, or I should 

} have gone. Obligation, 

[^ I had to go. Cojnpulsion. 

P f . . (I 3,m to go. Necessity. 

' ( I shall have to go. Compulsion, 

Remark. — We thus find certain j^istinct forms which express necessity^ 
obligation ox compulsion in present, past or future time. Since the object 
denoted by the subject is determined through some outside power to the 
putting forth of certain energies, an appropriate name for this mode is 
Requisitive. We thus separate must Irom the potential mode, and include 
certain otlier periphrastic forms which have not been heretofore recognized. 
Thus, the Requisitive Mode expresses what is demanded of us by our 
relations to the Universe, 



48 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VII. 
V. Imperative Mode. 

^^Let the following be writte?i on the blackboard : 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

ist Person, Let me go. Let us go. 

2d Person, Go thou. Go ye. 

2^d Person, Let him go. Let them go. 

Future Tense. 

ist Perso7i, I will go. We will go. 

2d Person [ ^^'^^ ^layest go. You may go. 

( Thou shalt go. You shall go. 

xd Person \ ^^ ^^^^ ^^* ^^^^ ^^^ S^* 

*^ ' ( He shall go. They shall go. 

Remark i. — We thus find that the Imperative Mode has forms for two 
numbers and three persons. As this mode gives utterance to what is 
willed by the speaker or writer, and expresses command^ purpose, entreaty, 
prayer, exkortatio?z, permission or imprecation, it may have two tenses — 
the Present and the Future, 

Remark 2. — Will is used in the first person to express a promise or a 
THREAT, and shall m the second and third persons to express a command, 
a PROMISE, or a threat. In the Imperative Mode, may expresses per- 

MISSION. 

2. Use of Participials and Modes. 
Exercise I. 
^^Let the pupil write tcfi sente?ices containing Infinitives 
usi7ig the Irifinitive with another verb. 
Model. — He went to see his father. 

Remark. — After the active voice of behold, bid, dare (to venture), do 
feel, find, have, hear, help, let, make, need, please and see, the to of the 
Infinitive is omitted. 

Exercise II. 
""Let the pupil write sentences containing these verbs. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

Exercise III. 

}^^Let the pupil write te?i sente?ices co?itai?ii?ig Participles, 
usi7ig them with other verbs. 

Model. — Much depends on the doctor's coming. 
Exercise IV. 

l^^Let the pupil write ten sefitejices contaijwig verbs in the 
Indicative Mode. 

ly Model. — There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

Exercise V. 

^^ Let the pupil write ten se?itences containing verbs in the 
Potential Mode. 

Model. — The letter *may yet be found. 
Exercise VI. 

^^ Let the pupil write ten serJences containing vei'bs in the 
Subjunctive Mode. 

Model. — If this be treason, make the most of it. 

Exercise VII. 

}^^ Let the pupil write ten sentences containing verbs in the 
Requisitive Mode. 

Model, — I am to go on a visit to-morrow. 
Exercise VIII. 



^ Let the pupil write te?i sentences cofitaining verbs i?i the 
Imperative Mode. 

Model. — Let there be light. 

Exercise IX. 

l^ Let the pupil write ten sentences, having two sentences in 
each mode. 



50 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

3. Recognition of the Properties of Verbs. 

Exercise I. 

^^^Let the pupil select the verbs from the foUowi?2g sentences 
and extracts^ and give their voice, mode, tense, form, person 
and number : 

1. Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure of future harms. 

2. To be loved makes not to love again. 

3. True knowledge consists in knowing things. 

4. Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts 
Given to redeem the human mind from error. 
There were no need of arsenals and forts. 

5. He that studies English literature without the lights of 
classical learning, loses half the charms of its sentiment 
and style. 

6. The man had been waiting for a long time. 

7. For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows, the Summer ray 
Russets the plain, inspiring Autumn gleams. 
Or winter rises in the blackening East, 

Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And dead to joy, forget my heart to beat. 
rS--=:man | (a)=The 

\ ( (cop)=had been 

j^ ^'"" ^ (att)=waiting | (v:=time { j^^^f^ng 

Remark. — As Auxiliary verbs express relations of thought, they are to 
be classed with the copula. 

Exercise II. 



^ Let the pupil select all the verbs from his reading lesson^ 
and tell their properties. Let this exercise be cojitiimed tmtil 
pupils can readily distifiguish each property of the verb. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



51 



Present : 
Perfect: 

Present : 
Perfect: 



to be freezing. 

to have been freezing. 



Singular, 
ist Person, 
2d Perso7i, 
2yd Person, 
Plural. 
\si Person. 
2d Persoft, 
^d Person, 

Singular. 
ist Person. 
2d Person, 
^d Person. 
Plural. 
ist Person, 
zd Per s 071, 
^d Person, 

Singtclar. 
ist Person, 
id Person. 
;^d Person, 



CHAPTER VII. 
CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

I, PARTICIPIALS. 

1. InjBnitives. 

Com7non Form. Progressive ForTn, 

to freeze. 

to have frozen. 

2. Participles. 

freezing, 
having frozen. 

II. THE FINITE VERB. 

I. Indicative Mode. 
1. Present Tense. 

Common Form. Progressive Form, 

I freeze. I am freezing. 

Thou freezest. Thou art freezing. 

He freezes. He is freezing. 



We freeze. 
You freeze. 
They freeze. 

2. Past 

I froze. 
Thou frozest. 
He froze. 

We froze. 
You froze. 
They froze. 

3. Future 

Common For?n. 
I shall freeze. 
Thou wilt freeze. 
They will freeze. 



We are freezing. 
You are freezing. 
They are freezing. 

Tense. 

I was freezing. 
Thou wast freezing. 
He was freezing. 

We were freezing. 
You were freezing. 
They were freezing. 

Tense. 

Plural. 
We shall freeze. 
You will freeze. 
He will freeze. 



52 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular, 
ist Person. 
2d Person, 
2fd Person. 

Singular. 
1st Person. 
2d Per s 071, 
^d Person, 
Plural, 
\st Person. 
2d Person, 
2,d Person, 

Singular. 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
3^ Person. 
Plural. 
ist Person. 
2d lerson. 
^d Persoit, 



Progressive Form, 

I shall be freezing. 
Thou wilt be freezing. 
He will be freezing. 



Plural. 
We shall be freezing. 
You will be freezing. 
They will be freezing. 



4. Present Perfect Tense. 



I have frozen. 
Thou hast frozen. 
He has frozen. 

We have frozen. 
You have frozen. 
They have frozen. 



I have been freezing. 
Thou hast been freezing. 
He has been freezing. 

We have been freezing. 
You have been freezing. 
They have been freezing. 



5. Past Perfect Tense. 



I had frozen. 
Thou hadst frozen. 
He had frozen. 

We had frozen. 
You had frozen. 
They had frozen. 



I had been freezing. 
Thou hadst been freezing. 
He had been freezing. 

We had been freezing. 
You had been freezing. 
They had been freezing. 



6. Future Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 
\st Per. I shall have frozen. 

Thou wilt have frozen. 
He will have frozen. 



2d Per. 
2,d Per. 
Plural. 
\st Per. 
2d Per. 
2^d Per, 



We shall have frozen. 
You will have frozen. 
They will have frozen. 



I shall have been freezing. 
Thou wilt have been freezing. 
He will have been freezing. 

We shall have been freezing. 
You will have been freezing. 
They will have been freezing. 



Emphatic Form. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 
ist Person. I do freeze. 
2d Person, Thou dost freeze. 
^d Person, He does freeze. 



Plural. 
We do freeze. 
You do freeze. 
They do freeze. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



53 



ist Person, 
2d Person. 
3^ Person,^ 



Past Tense. 

Sutgular, 

I did freeze. 
Thou didst freeze. 
He did freeze. 



We did freeze. 
You did freeze. 
They did freeze. 



II. Potential Mode. 



a. 



Present Tense [I?ide_pendent). 
Common Form. 



Singular. 
\st Person. 
2d Person. 
2yd Per s 071. 
Plural. 
\st Person. 
2d Person. 
3^ Person. 



I may freeze. 
Thou mayest freeze. 
He may freeze. 

We may freeze. 
You may freeze. 
They may freeze. 



I can freeze. 
Thou canst freeze. 
He can freeze. 

We can freeze. 
You can freeze. 
They can freeze. 



Progressive Form. 



Singular. 

I. I may be freezing. 

'2. Thou mayest be freezing. 
3. He may be freezing. 

PluraL 

1. We may be freezing. 

2. You may be freezing. 

3. They may be freezing. 



I can be freezing. 
Thou canst be freezing. 
He can be freezing. 

We can be freezing. 
You can be freezing. 
They can be freezing. 



b. Present Tense {Determi?ied). 

Conwion Form. 

Singular. 

1. I might freeze. I could freeze. 

2. Thou mightest freeze. Thou couldst freeze. 

3. He might freeze. He could freeze. 

Plural. 

We might freeze. We could freeze. 

You mi.o^ht freeze. You could freeze. 

They could freeze. 



I. 

2. 



3. They might freeze. 



54 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Progressive Form, 



Singular. 

1. I might be freezing. 

2. Thou mightest be freezing. 

3. He might be freezing. 
Fhiral. 

1. We might be freezing. 

2. You might be freezing. 

3. They might be freezing. 



I could be freezing. 
Thou couldst be freezing. 
He could be freezing. 

We could be freezing. 
You could be freezing. 
They could be freezing. 



a. Past Tense {Independent), 
Common Form, 



I can have frozen. 
Thou canst have frozen. 
He can have frozen. 

We can have frozen. 
You can have frozen. 
They can have frozen. 



Singular, 

1. I may have frozen. 

2. Thou may est have frozen. 

3. He may have frozen. 
Plural. 

1. We may have frozen. 

2. You may have frozen. 

3. They may have frozen. 

Progressive Form, 
Singular, 

1. I may or can have been freezing. 

2. Thou may est or canst have been freezing. 

3. He may or can have been freezing. 
Plural, 

1. We may or can have been freezing. 

2. You may or can have been freezing. 

3. They may or can have been freezing. 

b. Past Tense {Determined^ 

Common Form, 

Singular, 

1. I might have frozen. 

2. Thou mightest have frozen. 

3. He might have frozen. 
Plural. 

1. We might have frozen. 

2. You might have frozen. 

3. They might have frozen. 



I could have frozen. 
Thou couldst have frozen. 
He could have frozen. 

We could have frozen. 
You could have frozen. 
They could have frozen. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



55 



Progressive Form, 
Singular, 

1. I might or could have been freezing. 

2. Thou mightest or couldst have been freezing. 

3. He might or could have been freezing. 

Plural, 

1. We might or could have been freezing. 

2. You might or could have been freezing. 

3. They might or could have been freezing. 



III. Subjunctive Mode. 
1. Present Tense. 



Common Form, 


Progressive Form, 


Singular, 




I. If I freeze. 


If I be freezing. 


2. If thou freeze. 


If thou be freezing. 


3. If he freeze. 


If he be freezing. 


Plural, 




I. If we freeze. 


If we be freezing. 


2. If you freeze. 


If you be freezing. 


3. If they freeze. 


If they be freezing. 




2. Past Tense. 


Singular, 




I. If I froze. 


If I were freezing. 


2. If thou frozest. 


If thou wert freezing. 


3. If he froze. 


If he were freezing. 


Plural, 




I. If we froze. 


If we were freezing. 


2. If you froze. 


If you were freezing. 


3. If they froze. 


If they were freezing. 




3. Future Tense. 




Common Form, 



Singular, 

1. If I should freeze. 

2. If thou should§t freeze. 

-x. If he shall or should freeze 



Plural, 
If we should freeze. 
If you should freeze. 
If they shall or should freeze. 



56 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Progressive Form, 
Singular, 

1. If I should be freezing. 

2. If thou shouldst be freezing. 

3. If he shall or should be freezing. 

Plural, 

1. If we should be freezing. 

2. If you should be freezing. 

3. If they shall or should be freezing. 

4. Present Perfect Tense. 





Common Form, 




Singular, Plural, 


I. 


If I have frozen. If we have frozen. 


2. 


If thou hast frozen. If you have frozen. 


3- 


If he has frozen. If they have frozen. 



Progressive Form, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I have been freezing. If we have been freezing. 

2. If thou hast been freezing. If you have been freezing. 

3. If he has been freezing. If they have been freezing. 

5. Past Perfect Tense. 





Common Form. 




Singular. Plural. 


I. 


If I had frozen. If we had frozen. 


2. 


If thou hadst frozen. If you had frozen. 


3- 


If he had frozen. If they had frozen. 




Progressive For^n, 




Singular. Plural. 


I. 


If I had been freezing. If we had been freezing. 


2. 


If thou hadst been freezing. If you had been freezing. 


3- 


If he had been freezing. If they had been freezing. 



6. Future Perfect Tense. 

Common For?n, 
Singular. 

1. If I should have frozen. 

2. If tl ou shouldst have frozen. 

3. If he shall or should have frozen. 



THIRD CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



57 



Plural, 

1. If we should have frozen. 

2. If you should have frozen. 

3. If they snail or should have frozen. 

Progressive For?n. 
Singular. 

1. If I should have been freezing. 

2. If thou shouldst have been freezing. 

3. If he shall or should have been freezing. 

Phiral, 

1. If we should have been freezing. 

2. If you should have been freezing. 

3. If they shall or should have been freezing. 

rV. Requisitive Mode. 
1. Present Tense. 



Singular, Necessity. 

1. I must freeze. 

2. Thou must freeze, 

3. He must freeze. 

Plural. 

1. We must freeze. 

2. You must freeze. 

3. They must freeze. 



Co nun on For??i. 

Compulsion, 
I have to freeze. 
Thou hast to freeze. 
He has to freeze. 



We have to freeze. 
You have to freeze. 
They 'have to freeze. 



Obligation, 



Singular. 

1. I ought to freeze. 

2. Thou oughtest to freeze. 

3. He ought to freeze. 

Plural. 

1. We ought to freeze. 

2. You ought to freeze. 

3. They ought to freeze. 

Progressive 
Singular. Necessity. 

1. I must be freezing. 

2. Thou must be freezing. 

3. He must be freezing. 



I should freeze. 
Thou shouldst freeze. 
He should freeze. 

We should freeze. 
You should freeze. 
They should freeze. 

Form. 

Obligation. 
I ought to be freezing. 
Thou oughtest to be freezing. 
He ought to be freezing. 



58 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plural. 

1. We must be freezing. 

2. You must be freezing. 

3. They must be freezing. 



We ought to be freezing. 
You ought to be freezing. 
They ought to be freezing. 



Singular, Compulsion Plural. 

1. I have to be freezing. We have to be freezing. 

2. Thou hast to be fr*eezing. You have to be freezing. 

3. He has to be freezing. They have to be freezing. 

2. Past Tense. 

Commofi Form, 
Singular, Necessity, Compulsion, 

1. I must have frozen. I had to freeze. 

2. Thou must have frozen. Thou hadst to freeze. 

3. He must have frozen. He had to freeze. 

Plural. 

1. We must have frozen. 

2. You must have frozen. 

3. They must have frozen. 



We had to freeze. 
You had to freeze. 
They had to freeze. 



Singular, Obligation, 

1. I ought to have frozen. I should have frozen. 

2. Thou oughtest to have frozen. Thou shouldst have frozen. 

3. He ought to have frozen. He should have frozen. 

Plural. 

I. We ought to have frozen. 



You ought to have frozen. 
They ought to have frozen. 



We should have frozen. 
You should have frozen. 
They should have frozen. 



Progressive Form, 
Singular, Necessity. 

I must have been freezing. 
Thou must have been freezing. 
He must have been freezing. 



3 

Plural, 



We must have been freezing. 
You must have been freezing. 
They must have been freezing. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

Singular, Obligation, 

1. I ought to have been freezing. 

2. Thoa oughtest to have been freezmg. 

3. He ought to have been freezing. 

FluraL 

1. We ought to have been freezing. 

2. You ought to have been freezing. 

3. They ought to have been freezing. 

Singular, Cojupidsion. PluraL 

1. I had to be freezing. We had -to be freezing. 

2. Thou hadst to be freezing. You had to be freezing. 

3. He had to be freezmg. They had to be freezing. 

3. Future Tense. 
Co??i?Jio7i Form. 

Singular. Necessity. Co?npulsion. 

1. I am to freeze. I shall have to freeze. 

2. Thou art to freeze. Thou shalt have to freeze. 

3. He is to freeze. He shall have to freeze. 

Fli4ral. 

1. We are to freeze. We shall have to freeze. 

2. You are to freeze. You shall have to freeze. 

3. They are to freeze. They shall have to freeze. 

Progressiva Form. 
Singular. Necessity. Plural. 

1. I am to be freezing. W^e are to be freezing. 

2. Thou art to be freezing. You are to be freezing. 

3. He is to be freezing. They are to be freezing. 

Singular. Compulsion. 

1. I shall have to be freezing. 

2. Thou shalt have to be freezing. 

3. He shall have to be freezing. 

Plural. 

1. We shall have to be freezing. 

2. You shall have to be freezing. 

3. They shall have to be freezing. 



60 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

V. Imperative Mode. 

1. Present Tense. 

Common Form, Progressive Form, 

Singular, 

1. Let me freeze. Let me be freezing. 

2. Freeze thou. Be thou freezing. 

3. Let him freeze. Let him be freezing. 
Plural, 

1. Let us freeze. Let us be freezing. 

2. I reeze ye. Be ye freezing. 

3. Let them freeze. Let them be freezing. 

2. Future Tense. 

Common Form. 
Singular, 

1. I will freeze. 

2. Thou shalt freeze. Thou may est freeze. 

3. He shall freeze. He may freeze. 

Plural 

1. We will freeze. 

2. You shall freeze. You may freeze. 

3. He shall freeze. They may freeze. 

Progressive Form, 
Singular, 

1. I will be freezing. 

2. Thou shalt be freezing. Thou mayest be freezing. 

3. He shall be freezing. He may be freezing. 
Plural, 

1. We will be freezing. 

2. You shall be freezing. You may be freezing. 

3. They shall be freezing. They may be freezing. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Voice is a property of transitive verbs, and hence transitive 
verbs only have forms to express voice. As the passive voice 
differs from the progressive form of the active voice only in 
the participle used, it is not necessary to repeat these forms 
here. Let the pupil be required to repeat the progressive form 
of the active voice, substituting the perfect participle wher- 
ever the present active participle is used, and he will have the 
corresponding forms of the passive voice. Thus : 

I am {^freezing) frozen. Thou art {freezi?ig) frozen, etc. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

CHAPTER VIII. 
PREPOSITIONS. 





Exercise I. 


13 


TLet the following be written on the blackboard : 




Adverbs. 


Prepositions. 


I. 


The boy went up. 


The boy went up the hill. 


2. 


The child fell down. 


The child fell down the stairs. 


3- 


He rode by. 


He rode by the school. 


4. 


They went near. 


They went near the crater. 


5- 


He was laughed at. 


They laughed at him. 



""Such words as up^ down, by, near, and at, when they 
are not followed by a noun or pronoun, are Adverbs. But 
when their application is limited through a noun or a pro- 
noun, as in the second column of sentences, they are said to 
be placed before such noun or pronoun to show some relation 
to what precedes. From the circumstance of their position, 
they are called Prepositions. Hence — 

Definition. — A word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word, 
is called a Preposition, 

Exercise II. 

1^^ Let the pupil write sefitences containing the following 
Simple Prepositions : 

At, after, by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, 
since, through, till, to, under, up, and with. 

Model. — The news comes /r^w the North. 



62 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 
- 1^^ Let the pupil write se?itences containiiig the following 
Compound Prepositions : 

a. Abaft, aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid, 

amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. 

b. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, 

betwixt, beyond. 

c. Into, unto, upon, within, without. 

d. Out of, throughout, toward, towards, underneath, until. 

Remark. — Such words as hit, except, save, concerning^ during, regatd- 
ing, and respecting, are sometimes used as Prepositions. 

Exercise IV. 
^^Let the following sefitences be written 07i the blackboard: 
I. Washington was a man of integrity. 
The man at the helm is sleeping. 
The gentleman from Missouri has the floor. 
The boy without arms could sew with his feet. 
David was a man after God's own heart. 
The banquet was fit for a king. 
The boy stood on the burning deck 
Whence all but him had fled. 

^Sometimes the Preposition with the words following it 
limits a noun or a pronoun, in which case the Preposition 
with its dependent words constitute what is usually called an 
adjective ele7ne7it of the second class, the symbol of which is a^ 

^Washington 
(cop)=was 

+ ((a)=a 
(att)=man ( (a^)=of integrity. 

• Let the pupil write the a?ialysis of all the sentences in 
Exercise IV, except the 7th. 
Remark. — S D S means Simple Declarative Sentence. 




THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6'3 

Exercise V. 
^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

1. The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. 

2. I kept my eye upon the receding mass of ice. 

3. We ran to the dark spot in the centre of the mass. 
3. A movement of the tide set the ice in motion. 

5- Thou hast kept thy word with me to the last moment. 

{^Whenever the Preposition with its dependent noun or 
pronoun expresses place ^ time^ cause, man7ter, or degree^ it con- 
stitutes what is called an adverbial element of the second class, 
the symbol of which is v^ 

S ^S=I 

I <{ (o)=eye | (a)=my 

C (a )=the 
rupon mass < (a )=receding 
( (a^)=of ice. 

^^Diagram all the remaining sentences in Exercise V. 

Exercise VI. 
^^Let the pupil select the Prepositions from the following 
sente7ices, and diagram them according to the precedifig models : 

1. I armed myself from head to foot against the inroads 

of the cold. 

2. The old oak is loaded with a flock of singing blackbirds. 

3. The old Indian fell dead at the feet of the white woman 

by a blow of the tomahawk. 

4. I sent him a note by a messenger on Monday. 

5. The muse, on eagle-pinions borne, 
Attempted through the summer-blaze to rise ; 
Then swept o'er autumn with the shadowy gale. 

Exercise VII. 
^^Let the pupil select the Prepositions from his reading les- 
son, and diagram simple se?itences. 



D < P=kept ] 



64, THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER IX. 

coNJxns^CTioxs. 

Exercise I. 
l^Let the following sefitences be written on the blackboard: 

1. John and Mary write. 

2. Mary plays and sings. 

3. Wise and good men die. 

4. John speaks eloquently and correctly. 

5. George went to Boston or New York. 

Remark. — In examining the above sentences we find that and in every 
instance connects words which have a common relation to some other 
word. Such words as and are called Conjunctions. Hence — 

Definitiot^. — A Conjunction is a word which 
joins words having a common relation to some other 

word. 

Exercise. II. 

1^^ Lei the pupil write se?ite?ices containing the following 
Co-ordinate Conjunctions : 

And, also, as well as; but; either, or; neither, nor. 

Exercise III. 

i^^ Let the pupil write sentences containing the following 
Subordinate Conjunctions : 

But, whether; if, unless, except; though, although; as, 
because, since, hence, therefore. 

Exercise IV. 
^^ Let pupils select all the Conjimctions from their reading 
lessons^ and tell whether they are Co-ordinate or Subordinate. 

Remark. — Conjunctive Pronouns^ Corjunciive Adverbs^ and htterro- 
gaiive words can be treated properly only in connection with elements of 
the third class. 



FOURTH CIRCLE 



ENGLISH &RAMMAE 



SEVENTH AND EIGHTH TEARS OR GRADES. 

BT 

T. E. VICKROY, A.M., 

Author of "An Elementary Grammar of the English Language," etc. 



EVERY PUPIL SHOULD MASTER ONE STUDY AT LEAST. 



ST. LOUIS: 
G. I. JONES AND COMPANY. 

188 0, • 



> 



Entered according- to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by 

T. R. VICKROY, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PEEFAOE. 



The following pages contain the work in grammar suitable 
for the Seventh and Eighth Years or Grades. 

The determination of the function of grammar as a branch 
of study is of jfirst importance. One class of teachers would 
make grammar a culture-study, another would give it a psy- 
chological tendency, while a third v/ould make it the channel 
through which to unfold the science of language. Again, 
one makes it consist in analysis, another regards it as compo- 
sition, and a third makes it a concrete logic, in which pupils 
are exercised in placing the words of a sentence under vari- 
ous categories. 

Grammar has therefore a logical side, a practical side, an 
historical side, a critical side, a psychological side, and a cul- 
ture side. While grammar is a solid study, this hexedron is 
not a cube, because the sides are unequal in importance. If 
any one of these sides is unduly emphasized, the teaching 
must be abstract and imperfect, and hence it has been the 
author's aim to give due prominence to every phase of the 
subject. 

Grammatical knowledge is thought -knowledge. That 
which is perceptive and representative must precede it. As 
in the order of nature we go from the known to the unknown, 
it is well to begin the study of grammar by noting the rela- 
tions of objects, ideas, and words. The object gives us pre- 
sentative knowledge, the word representative knowledge, and 



IV PREFACE. 

the result is the idea, or thought-knowledge. Thus, in study- 
ing language the word suggests the object, and the object the 
idea, so that in its very nature this study is reflective and 
critical. 

Grammar is studied not so much to learn to speak and 
write, as to learn to judge accurately of what is spoken or 
written. The experience of educators, generally, is that cor- 
rect speech must be measurably acquired, if acquired at all, 
before the child is prepared for the study of technical gram- 
mar. Knowledge, especially in its earlier stages, is acquired 
inductively, and not by rule, for facts must be known as facts 
before they can be known in their relations, — that is, as so 
much science or philosophy. Hence, in the nursery, on the 
play-ground, in the school-room, correct speech should be 
constantly cultivated. 

Technical grammar begins with the elements of speech. 
Grammatical facts should be learned in connection with 
reading and spelling. In all oral recitations correct speech 
should be insisted on ; and in written examinations and writ- 
ten recitations, accuracy of expression, especially in the use 
of capitals and punctuation points, and in spelling, should 
be duly emphasized. If pupils are taught facts, not theories ; 
if the directions herein given are faithfully followed out and 
the exercises properly prepared, grammar will become the 
most useful and delightful of all studies. 

This Circle completes the graded course, and is submitted 
to the practical test of the school-room. 

The Author. 

St. Louis, July 8, 1880. 



TABLE OF OOl!fTEi;rTS. 



CHAPTER L General Definitions (pp. 9-17). 

PAGE. 

1. Articulate Sounds 9-10 

2. Alphabetic Characters (p. 80) 10 

3. Accentuation 10-12 

4. Syllabication 13-14 

5. The Parts of Speech 14-16 

6. Grammatical Properties 16-17 



CHAPTER 11. Formal Analysis (18-27). 

1. Principal Elements 18-19 

2. Basis of Subject and Predicate 19-21 

3. Subordinate Elements 21—22 

4. Symbolizing 22-23 

5. Elements of the Second Class 23-24 

6. Elements of the Third Class 24-26 

7. Compound Elements and Sentences 26-27 



CHAPTER III. Syntax — Predicative Relations (28-33). 

1. Syntactic Relations Classified . . • 28 

2. Basis of the Subject and the Finite Verb. Rules I. and II. . 28-29 

3. Models for Parsing 29 

4. Formulas for Parsing. Exercises. Imperative Sentences . 30-32 

5. Compound Subjects. Exercise. Note 32-33 

(V) 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 
CHAPTER IV. COMPLEMENTAL RELATIONS (34-40). 

1. The Relation of the Direct Object. Rule III. Model for 

Parsing. Exercises 34-36 

2. The Relation of the Prepositional Object. Rules IV. and V. 

Models for Parsing. Exercise 36-38 

3. The Relation of the Indirect Object. Rule VI. Model for 

Parsing. Exercises 38-40 

CHAPTER V. Attributive Relations (41-44). 

1. Substantives as Attributes. Rule VII. Model for Parsing. 

Exercise 41-43 

2. Adjectives as Attributes. Rule VIII. Model for Parsing. 

Formula. Exercise 43-44 

CHAPTER VI. Determinative Relations (45-57). 

1. The Modifying Adjective. Rule IX. Models for Parsing. 

Exercise 45-47 

2. The Possessive. Rule X. Model for Parsing. Exercise. 

Possessives without Objects. Rule XI. Exercises . . . 47-50 

3. The Appositive. Rule XII. Model for Parsing. Exercise 50-52 

4. The Adverb. Rule XIII. Models for Parsing. Exercises 52-54 

5. The Noun of Quantity. Rule XIV. Model for Parsing. 

Exercise 54-5^ 

6. Participials used Adverbially. Rule XV. Models for Pars- 

ing. Exercise . . 56-57 

CHAPTER VII. Conjunctive Relations (58-73). 

1. The Use of Coordinate Conjunctions. Rule XVI. Models 

for Parsing. Exercises 58-61 

2. The Use of Subordinate Conjunctions. Rule XVII. Model 

for Parsing. Exercise 62-63 

3. The Use of Relative Pronouns. Rule XVIII. Model for 

Parsing. Exercise. Remark on use of that 64-67 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vll 

PAGE. 

4. The Use of Compound Relative Pronouns. Model for Pars- 

ing. Exercise 67-68 

5. The Use of Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives. Exercise 68-69 

6. The Use of Conjunctive Adverbs. Rule XIX. Model for 

Parsing. Exercises 69-72 

7. The Use of Interrogative Adverbs and Interrogative Sentences 72-73 

CHAPTER VIII. Participial Relations (74-79). 

1. The Participial as Final Object. Rules XX. and XXI. 

Models for Parsing. Exercise 74-7^ 

2. The Participle after a Preposition. Rule XXII. Model for 

Parsing. Exercise 76-77 

3. The Conjunctive Participial Construction. Model for Pars- 

ing. Exercise 77-78 

4. The Absolute Construction. Rule XXIII. Model for Pars- 

ing. Exercise 7^-79 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

Ensflish Grammar treats of the elements of the Eno*- 
lish language. These elements comprise articulate 
sounds, alphabetic characters, syllables, words, and 
sentences. 

1. Articulate Sounds. 

Articulate sounds are the ultimate elements of speech. 
There are thirty-two such elements in English speech. 

Remark. — Lexicographers make forty-four distinctions in elementary 
sounds, but these include long vowels and diphthongs, there being six of 
each. 

Articulate sounds are divided into — 

I. Vowels. (C/. /. Circle, Chaps. X, and XL) 
II. Consonants. (C/ /. Circle, Chap. XIL') 

Exercise I. 

Jl^* Let the pupil produce all the sounds in the following 
selection, telling to what class each belo7igs : 

It was a little, lowly dwelling-place 
Amid a garden whose delightful air 

(9) 



10 FOURTH CIKCLE IN ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Was mild and fragrant as the evening wind 
Passing in summer o'er the coffee-groves 
Of Yemen and its blessed bowers of balm. 
A fount of fire, that in the centre played, 
Rolled all around its wondrous rivulets 
And fed the garden with the heat of life. 

Model. — JDelightfuli^ a trisyllable, containing eight ele- 
mentary sounds : d-e-l-i-t-f-u-1, gh being silent. 

2. Alphabetic Characters. 

The Roman alphabet, in which English is printed, con- 
sisted of twenty letters. In modern times^ by the addition of 
j, k, u, w, y, and z, this alphabet has been increased to twenty- 
six letters, of which k^ q, and x are redundant, (See p. 80.) 

Exercise II. 

Let the pupil represent each sound in the following ex- 

And they were gallant barks 
As ever through the raging billows rode ; 
And many a tempest's buffeting they bore. 
Their sails all swelling with the eastern breeze, 
Their tightened cordage clattering to the mast, 
Steady they rode the main ; the gale aloft 
Sung in the shrouds, the sparkling waters hissed 
Before, and frothed and whitened far behind. 

3. Accentuation. 

Accent is a distinctive stress of voice on one or more 
of the syllables of a word. 



tract : 



FOLKTH CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

Remark. — In polysyllabic words {Cf, /. Circle, Chap, VIII.), the 
last syllable is called \X\q. final, the next to the last \h.Q penult, and the 
third from the end, the antepemclt. 



Principles of Accentuation. 

I. Monosyllables are generally without accent. 

II. Dissyllables are generally accented on the penult. 

Exception i. — A few foreign words, and words com- 
pounded with monosyllabic prefixes, are accented 
on the penult ; as, finance, cuij-ass, detail , i^ecess, 
coquette, coiipee, saline, emit, commit, dispose, iii- 
sure, impale, inquire, etc. 

Exception 2. — Derivative words are accented on the 
root syllable ; as, en?'oP, en?'oPment; inhere\ in/ie^- 
rence ; interline', interlin'eary ; emend , emend atory. 

Remark. — Homonyms are distinguished by the accent; ab'ject (noun 
or adjective), a/yVr/' (verb) ; An' gust (noun), a/^^wj-/' (adjective) ; gal- 
lanf (noun), gallant (adjective). The noun is generally distinguished 
from the verb or adjective by being accented on the penult. 

III. Polysyllables are generally accented on the antepenult. 

Exception i. — When c, g, s, or /, unites with a fol- 
lowing e or / to represent the sound of is/i ox jay , 
the word is accented on the penult; as, official, 
patrPcian, cretaceous, voraUious, dissen'sious, coura^- 
geous, conten'tious. 

Exception 2. — Words ending in /V are accented on 
the penult, except arithmetic, bishopric, catholic, 
choleric, ep hem eric, heretic, lunatic ^ politic^ rhet- 
oric, and tur??ieric. 



12 FO^TRTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exception 3. — Words ending in tive or sive, preceded 
by a consonant or long vowel, are accented on the 
penult ; as^ collective, defective, decisive, eiiiotive, 
progressive, secretive, etc. So also so?io^rous and 
cano^rous. But adjective, derivative, and substan- 
tive are accented on the antepenult. 

Exception 4. — Words having long e in the penult are 
accented on that syllable ; as, ada7nante^an, anti- 
pode^an^ Atlante^an, empyre^an, Europe[a7i, colos- 
sehim, epiciire^an, hyinene^ an , pygme^aii, plebeian, 
etc. 

Remark i. — Words of five or six syllables have a secondary accent 
C) on the first or second syllable ; as, indoc" t^'ina'tion accen"tua'tio}i, 
syllab"ica'tion, a7ne"liora'tio7i, etc. 

Remark 2. — A word of six, seven, or eight syllables has a tertiary 
accent ('") having three syllables accented; as in'" subor" dina'tiony 
in'" divis"ibil'ity, in'" comp7'ehen" sibil'ity, etc. 

Remark 3. — Foreign words usually follow the accent of the language 
from which they are taken. But when such words are fully Anglicised, 
they conform to the English accent and spelling. 



Exercise III. 

^ Let the pupil accent the following words ^ and give the 
rule for so doing : 

First-born among the continents, though so much later in 
culture and civilization than some of more recent birth, 
America, so far as her physical history is concerned, has 
been falsely denominated the New World. 

We welcome you to the immeasurable blessings of rational 
existence, the immortal hope of Christianity and the light of 
everlasting truth. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRA301AR. 13 

4. Syllabication. 

A Syllable is that part of a word which is uttered by a single 
impulse of the voice (C/. /. Circle, Chap, VIII.^. 

Syllabication is the process of dividing words into syllables. 

Words are divided into syllables to show their etymology 
and pronunciation. 

Principles of Syllabication. 

I. Roots and affixes should be separated ] as, de-lud-ing, 
de-not-ed^ ge-o-graph-ic-al, con-so-naitt. 

II. In any accented syllable, the consonants before and 
after the vowel are joined to that syllable ; as, be-fore , com-pon- 
ent, suh-stan-tive. 

III. Consonants preceding I ox r should be joined to them, 
unless the preceding syllable is accented j as, ge-o-graph-ic, 
ge og-raphy, a-crid-i-ty, ac-rid, ab-la-tive, 

IV. The vowel before /, n^ and r, in an unaccented sylla- 
ble, is joined to those letters ; as gen-er-ous, gutt-ur-al, vig-or- 
ous, spok-eii, gold-en. 

Remark. — Since the second of two consonants is generally not articu- 
lated, the double letter must be taken with the accented syllable ; as, 
app-le, arr-otv, a-ttai-tio^i, err-or, a-cqiiainty litt-le. See Webster's 
Principles of Pronunciation, \ 109, and Worcester, p. xxvii. 

V. A mute consonant following a liquid, nasal, spirant^ or 
sibilant, is joined to it ; as, con-sist-ent, dis-tinc-tion, clasp- 
ingj romp-ing, asking, pelt ing, court-ship. But n represent- 
ing the sound of ing before g, must be separated from it ; as, 
lan-guage, fin-ger, stron-ger, diph-thon-gal, lo7i-ger, 

VI. Of two or more different consonants coming between 
two vowels, the first is joined to the preceding syllable : as, 
bri7?t stone, church-man, splen-didy fan tas4ic, bom-bas-ticj liq' 
uid, des-ue-tude. 



14 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise IV. 

Jl®" Let the pupil separate the following words into sylla- 
bles : 

Anxious, anxiety, example, handmaid, ancient, mornings, 
unnumbered, machine, complexion, thousands, dejected, 
monger, triphthongal, languishing, pleasure, rejoicing, nos- 
trils, crystal, sacrilegious, trembling, lightning, bellowing, 
bespangling, handkerchief, pungent, jingled, whistle. 

Remark. — X must be resolved into its elements cs or gz. 

5. The Parts of Speech. 

The words of the English language are divided into classes 
called parts of speech, of which there are eight, viz. : Nouns, 
Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- 
tions, and Interjections. 

A Noun is a word which represents an object, and names it 
{Cf. /. Circle J Chap, F"., a7id II, Circle^ Chaps, /., //., and 

III.). 

A Pronoun is a word which represents an object, but does 
not name it (C/. //. Circle, Chap, VL and Chap. IX,, I, 
Rem. j), 

A Verb is a word which asserts {Cf, I, Circle, Chap, V, ; 
//. Circle, Chap. VII,, and III. Circle j Chap, II.'), 

'An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to determine its 
application {Cf, I. Circle, Chap, VIII,, and IT, Circle, Chaps, 
IX, and X,). 

An Adverb is a word which expresses //<2(f^^ time, cause, 
manner, or degree (^Cf. II. Circle, Chaps, XI, and XII,). 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun 
to show its relation to some preceding word {Cf. III. Circle, 
Chap. VIII). 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

A Conjunction is a word which joins words having a com- 
mon relation to some other word {Cf. Ill* Circle^ Chap. ZY".). 
An Interjection is a word which expresses emotion {Cf, III. 

Circ'e, p, 7). 

Remark. — Thought has both /<??';;/ and content. Language is its 
for?n, while ideas {conceptions, notio^ts) and their relations constitute 
its content. In view of their content, words may therefore be classed — 

I. As Notion Words, 
II. As Relation Words, and 
III. As Mixed Words. 

Notion words denote — 

1. Substantial entities — Nouns. 

2. The attributes of entities — Adjectives. 

3. The condition of entities — Adverbs. 

Relation words denote — 

1. The relation of words — Prepositions. 

2. The relations of entities — Conjunctions. 

3. The relations of thought — Auxiliaries. 

Mixed words denote notions and relations — 

1. Related objects — Pronouns. 

2. Related acts — Verbs. 

« 

3. Related thoughts — Conjunctives. 

Note. — We shall treat conjunctives in connection with complex 
sentences. 

Exercise V. 

Jl®" Let the pupil classify all the words in the following 
extract : 

He is the freeman whom the truth makes free 
And all are slaves beside. There's not a chain 



16 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That hellish foes, confederate for his harm, 
Can wind around him, but he casts it off 
With as much ease as Samson his green withes. 
He looks abroad into the varied field 
Of nature, and, though poor perhaps compared 
With those whose mansions glitter in his sight, 
Calls the delightful scenery all his own. 
His are the mountains, and the valleys his, 
And the resplendent rivers. 

6. Grammatical Properties of Words. 

A Grammatical Property is what belongs to a word for the 
time being as an essential ingredient. 

Remark i. — The properties and inflections of words are csMedAcci- 
dents. 

Remark 2. — Pi^epositions, Conjunctions, and Interj ections have no 
properties. 

There are nine grammatical properties, viz : Person, Num- 
ber, Gender, Case, Comparison, Voice, Mode, Tense, and 
Form. 

Person is that property of a noun, a pronoun, or a verb 
which shows its relation to the speaker (C/. II, Circle , Chap. 
VI,, and III. Circhjp, 46), 

Number is that property of a noun, a pronoun, or a verb 
which relates to the unity or plurality of the objects repre- 
sented K^Cf. as above). 

Gender is that property of a noun or a pronoun which re- 
lates to the sex of the object represented (C/". //. Circle, 
Chap, v.). 

Case is that property of a noun or a pronoun which relates 
to the change in form determined by its relation to other 
words {^Cf. II Circle, Chap. X), 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 17 

Comparison is the process of changing the form of an 
adjective or adverb to express degrees of quantity or quality 
(C/. //. Circle, Chap, XL), 

Voice is that property of a transitive verb which shows its 
relation to the subject (^Cf. IIL Circle, Chap, IV,). 

Mode is that property of the verb which shows its relation 
to thought (C/. ///. Circle, Chap. VI.). 

Tense is that property of the verb which shows its relation 
to time (C/. ///. Circle, Chap. V,), 

Form is that property of the verb which shows the condi- 
tion of the act or state (C/. ///. Circle, Chap. V.). 



Exercise VI. 

" Let the pupil tell all the properties of each word in the 
following extract : 
Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and I linger on the 

shore, 
And the individual withers, and the world is more and more. 
Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and he bears a ladened 

breast. 
Full of sad experience, moving toward the stillness of his rest. 

Between the acting of a dreadful thing 
And the first motion, all the interim is 
Like a fantasma, or a hideous dream : 
The Genius and the mortal instruments 
Are then in council ; and the state of a man, 
Like to a little kingdom, suffers then 
The nature of an insurrection. 



18 FOUBTH CIKCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER II. 
FORMAL ANALYSIS. 

1. Principal Elements. 

• Analysis is the process of resolving a sentence into 
its proximate elements. 

Every sentence consists of two principal parts, viz : 

1. The Subject, — that is, the word or the group of 

words denoting the object about which something 
is said. 

2. The Predicate, — that is, the word or the group of 

words which asserts something about the object. 

Remark. — Language is a medium through which mental acts are 
expressed. These acts are intellective, emotional^ or volitive. At first, 
thought is implicit, but, in its movem^ent, it unfolds itself to conscious 
apprehension. When an implicit thought unfolds into a determinate 
fornix that form is called a sentence, so that a sentence expresses an 
EXPLICATED THOUGHT. The first things which fix a child's attention 
are called objects, which may be seen^ heaj'd, touched, tasted, sjnelt^ or 
thought. Words represent objects, and express their attributes and rela- 
tions. The relation of thing and property, substance and inherence, is 
the basis of the distinction of subject and predicate. The subject pre- 
sents an object as it is in itself; the predicate explicates it (C/". ///. 
Circle, Chap, 11.), 



FOURTH CmCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Exercise I. 

' Point out the subjects and predicates in the following 
extract: 

There came a giant to my door, 

A giant fierce and strong ; 
His step was heavy on the floor, 

His arms were ten yards long. 
He scowled and frowned ; he shook the ground ; 

I trembled through and through ; — 
At length I looked him in the face, 

And cried : *' Who cares for you ? ^ ' 

He sank before my earnest face, 

He vanished quite away. 
And left no shadow on his place 

Between me and the day. 
Such giants come to strike us dumb, — 

But, weak in every part, 
They melt before the strong man's eyes. 

And fly the true of heart. 

2. Basis of Subject and Predicate. 

When the subject or the predicate is complex, it consists 
of a basis and determinatives (modifiers). 

The basis of a co77iplex subject \^ usually a noun or a pro- 
noun. 

The basis of a complex predicate is a finite verb. 

We should therefore always carefully distinguish the basis 
of the subject and of the predicate from the collocation of 
words of which it forms a part. 



20 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise II. 

Ji®* Let the pupil marJz the basis of the subject and the pred- 
icate in each of the follow iiig sentences : 

1. There is a meiancholy music in Autumn. 

2. The leaves float about with a look of peculiar desolation. 

3. I love to listen to the falling of snow. 

4. It is an unobtrusive and sweet music. 

5. You may temper your heart to the serenest mood. 

6. The frost, too, has a melodious ministry. 

7. You will hear its crystals shoot in the dead of a clear 

night. 

8. I know nothing so wonderful as the shooting of a crystal. 

9. God has hidden its principle from the inquisitive eye of 

the philosopher. 
ID. The brooks have a sullen and muffled murmur under their 
frozen surface. 

Model. — -This little twig bore that large red apple. 



Remark. — -The extra line beneath distinguishes the 5asts from, the 
determinatives. 

Exercise III. 

Jl®" Zet the pupil separate the following extract into simple 
sentences, a7id mark each part as above: 

The leaves hung silent in the woods, the waters in the bay 
had forgotten their undulations, the flowers were bending 
their heads as if dreaming of the rainbow and the dew, and 
the whole atmosphere was of such a soft and luxurious sweet- 
ness, that it seemed a cloud of roses scattered down by the 
hands of Peri from the far-off garden of Paradise. The green 



FOURTH CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAJSIMAR. 21 

earth and the blue sea lay around in their boundlessness, and 
the peaceful sky bent over and kissed them. 

3. Subordinate Elements. 

A Subordinate Element is a word or a group of words used 
to determine the application of some other word. 

There are three subordinate elements, viz : 

1. The Adjective Element, 

2. The Objective Element, and. 

3. The Adverbial Element. 

The Adjective Element is a word or a group of words 
joined to a noun to determine which one, ho7u 7?ia?iy, whose, 
or what kind ^/object it denotes. 

Examples. 

TheJiJ^st three stanzas are highly poetical. 

Her bright, dishevelled hair clustered around her brow. 

The dear idol of my infant love lay on the green earth. 

The Objective Element is a word or a group of words used 
to denote the immediate or remote object of the act expressed 
by a verb. 

Remark. — The objective element usually answers the questions, 
What 2 or whom? or to ov for what or whof?i? after the verb. 

Examples. 

The Prince of Wales conducted \\\^ prisoner to Bordeaux. 
He concluded a two years' t7'uce with France. 
The Dauphin and the States of France rejected this treaty, 
Edward renounced all claim to the crow?t of France. 



22 FOUKTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Adverbial Element is a word or a group of words joined 
to a verb, adjective, or other adverb ^ to determine //^^^, time^ 
cause^ 77ianner, or degree. 

Examples. 

The victory gained at Bosworth was entirely decisive. 
Shortly afterward a peace was concluded luith Scotland, 
Lnmediately after a bill of attainder was framed against hi77t. 
No person was so low as not to become an object of his hu- 
manity. 

Exercise IV. 

"^^ Let the pupil select all the subordi7iate ele77te7tts fro7n the 
following extract : 

One of the results of the war was the founding of Halifax, 
in Nova Scotia, named after the Earl of Halifax, President 
of the Board of Trade. To relieve the great number of dis- 
charged soldiers and sailors, they were encouraged to emi- 
grate by a grant of fifty acres to each, a free passage, and 
immunity from taxes for a period of ten years. 

4. Symbolizing. 

As a test of a pupil's knowledge of what he has learned, 
some simple method of indicating the elements is desirable. 
The symbols given below are to be written under the ele- 
ments. 

1. — Indicates the basis of the subject. 

2. = Indicates the basis of the predicate. 

3. j^ Indicates an adjective element. 

4. o Indicates an objective element. 

5. "V" Indicates an adverbial element. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 



Examples. 

Constant boasting always betravs incapacity. 

.A. -V == O 

My neighbor's vicious horse destroyed my rare plants. 
J^ J^ J^ -A. J^ O 

Never before' did I see her look so pale. 
"V" "V = - = O ="V" = 



Exercise V. 

Ze^ the pupil mark all the elements in the following ex- 
tract : 

Nothing is lost : the drop of dew 

That trembles on the leaf or flower 
^ Is but exhaled, to fall anew 

In summer's thunder-shower , 
Perhaps to shine within the bow 

That fronts the sun at fall of day, 
Perhaps to sparkle in the flow 

Of fountains far away. 

5, Elements of the Second Class. 

An Element of the Second Class consists of a preposition 
and a complemental noun or pronoun. 

Remark i. — Prepositions really express adverbial relations (C/. ///. 
Circle, p. 6/), and the complemental noun or pronoun limits tbeir appli- 
cation. Thus, the difference between he rode by, and he rode by the 
house, consists in the definiteness of the application of the word by in 
the latter sentence. 

Remark 2. — The symbol for a second-class element is a line with a 
semi-circle at one end and a circle at the other. Thus ; -^z^ O 



24 fourth circle in english grammar. 

Examples. 
They came in boats. 



The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. 
-A. = ;::^-^- O c^ O 

He ran to the dark spot in the center of the mass. 

A movement of the tide set the ice in motion. 
-A. ^ — 7 O = .A. O -^ O 



Exercise VI. 

Lef the pupil symbolize each word in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. A gleam of amber light breaks from the west. 

2. The execution of this perilous attempt was confided to 

a young man. 

3. He was almost beside himself with joy. 

4. They took two steers for the use of the troops. 

5. Notes of discord silenced the acclamations of victory. 

6. One of the savage beasts pursued the shrieking child. 

7. The nobles filled the benches with the ladies by their 

side. 

8. One of the vergers in the cathedral filled the lamp with 

oil. 

9. They looked like little floating fairy isles of sapphire. 
10. You must inform me of the mysterious visitant to this 

room. 

6. Elements of the Third Class. 

An Element of the Third Class consists of a sentence used 
as a part of another sentence. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

Remark i. — Third-class elements are generally introduced hj sub- 
ordinate co7tju7tctions, relative pronouns^ or conjunctive adverbs, all 
of which are called Conjunctives. 

Remark 2. — A suitable symbol for a third-class element is a wave- 
line. Thus : ■ — "^^ ^^-^ 

Examples. 
That the earth turns on its axis, is an admitted fact. 



The man whom I loved, died yesterday. 
■A. . O ~-=^=^ "V 

He told me what he was going to do. 
— = O . O — — \ ==. 



The child who had been her little friend, came at daybreak. 
A. — -- J^ Jt^ == = ^ O 



Exercise VII. 
Let the pupil mark all the elements in the follow i7ig sen- 



tences , 



1. You do not know how elegantly a frog can swim. 

2. They stood in full view, while the boys were gathering 

lilies. 

3. She started up when a man leapt over the fence. 

4. They thought that he had made his escape. 

5. They pulled out to sea when they saw the soldiers. 

6. She forgot her burden when she had said this. 

7. Look at the mountains which tower in the west. 

8. If any one approached her, she screamed like a hyena. 

9. The dame thought of her sons who were in an adjoining 

room. 



26 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. They will dine at your expense before they go home. 

11. They saw the triumph which lighted up every patriotic 

face. 

12. I gave back the parcel "exactly as I had received it. 



7. Compound Elements and Sentences. 

Any of the elements may be compounded, — that is, they 
may be connected by a coordinate conjunction (^Cf. ///. 
Circle, Chap. IX.), 

Remark. — A suitable symbol for a compound element is * — <— '. 



Examples. 
John and Mary sing. 

Mary plays and sings. 



An old and faithful friend came, 
j^ _^ s^^ _A. 

John ate apples and pears. 

= O O 

They proceeded slowly and carefully. 

■ V "\r 

We went into the parlor and into the library. 
Life is short and art is long. 



He had not been there for more than forty years. 
— =^ V = "V ^ T — — — T O 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

Exercise VIII. 

Let the pupil mark all the elements in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest 

verdure. 

2. He comes amidst the pomp and fragrance of the season. 

3. His life seems all sensibility and enjoyment, — all song 

and sunshine. 

4. He is in the freshest and sweetest meadows. 

5. He perches on the topmost twig of a tree, or on some 

long, flaunting weed. 

6. He crossed my path in the sweetest weather, and the 

sweetest season of the year. 

7. All nature calls to the fields, and the rural feeling throbs 

in every bosom. 

8. He devoted himself to elegant pursuits and enjoyments. 

9. The bobolink is a bird of music and song, and taste, and 

sensibility, and refinement. 

10. The school-boy would not fling a stone at him, and the 

merest rustic would pause to listen to his strain. 

11. Come wealth or want, come good or ill, 

Let young and old accept their part, 
And bow before the. awful will. 

And bear it with an honest heart. 
Who misses, or who wins the prize — 

Go, lose, or conquer as you can ; 
But if you fall, or if you rise. 

Be each^ pray God^ a gentleman. 



28 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER III. 

SYNTAX — PREDICATIVE REEATIOXS. 

Syntax is the doctrine of the combination of words into 
sentences. 

A Sentence is a combination of words in which something 
is said of an object. 

1. Syntactic Relations Classified. 

There are six classes of syntactic relations, viz : 

/. Predicative Relations, 

II, Co77iplemental Relations. 

Ill Attributive Relations. 

IV. Determinative Relations. 

V. Co7ijunctive Relations. 

VI Participial Relations. 

2. Basis of the Subject and the Finite Verb. 
Exercise I. 

"^^ let the following sentences he written upon the black- 
board : 

I. I write. 2. We write. 

3. Thou writest. 4. You write. 

5. He writes, 6. They write. 

7. John writes. 8. Boys write. 



FOUKTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

Remark. — From a careful inspection of these and similar sentences, 
we may make the following inferences, viz: I. The noun or pronoun 
used as the basis of the subject is in the nominative case ; and 2. The 
finite verb takes the number and person of its subject. Hence — 

Rule I. For the Basis of the Subject. — ^ noun or a 
pronoun used as the basis of the subject must be in the nomi- 
native CASE. 

Rule II. For the Finite Verb. — A finite verb takes the 
PERSON ^/^^ NUMBER of the BASIS of its subject, 

3. Models for Parsing. 

Example. — Thou writ est. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, declined, sing. nom. thou, 
poss. thy or thine, obj. thee, plur. nom. you or ye^ 
poss. your ox yours, obj. you ; of the second person, 
singular number, masculine or feminine gender; it 
is used as the basis of the subject of writest, and is 
therefore in the nominative case, according to Rule 
I. : A noun or a pronoun used as the basis of the 
SUBJECT 77iust be in the nominative case. 

Writest is a transitive verb used intransitively ; prin. 
parts, pres. write, past, wrote, past participle, writ- 
ten; of the active voice, indicative mode, present 
tense, solemn form ; it is of the second person, sin- 
gular number, to agree with thou, according to 
Rule II. : The finite verb takes the person and 
NUMBER of the basis of its subject. 

Exercise II. 

I®* Let the teacher copy upon the blackboard the follow- 
ing: 



30 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Formulas for Parsing*. 

The Basis of the Subject, The Finite Verb, 

1. Tell the kind. i. Tell the kind. 

2. Decline. 2. Give principal parts. 

3. Give person, number, and 3. Give voice, if transitive. 

gender. 4. Give mode, tense, and 

4. Tell its use. form. 

5. Give its consequent case. 5. Name the agreeing word. 

6. Apply Rule I. 6. Apply Rule II. 

Remark i. — As these relations are fundamental, future progress will 
depend upon the thoroughness with which pupils are drilled in these 
first models and formulas. The formulas should be left upon the black- 
board until they are thoroughly learned, and the teacher should accustom 
pupils to give each item successively. 

Remark 2. — Pupils should be required to write the parsing according 
to the models given, as it will train them to use correct forms of lan- 
guage. 

Exercise III. 

Jl^" Let the pupil parse the basis of the subject and the finite 
VEKB in the following sentences : 

1. My oldest son designed a beautiful residence. 

2. Your brother might have drawn a prize. 

3. These boys should have been more prompt. 

4. You must study more diligently. 

5. We could plainly mark the heaving mass. 

6. They looked like floating fairy isles. 

7. The man who is really an artist, in making what we call 

works of art, does not seek his own pleasure. 

8. The one thing above all that makes a man an artist is 

that he loves his make-believe for its own sake. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

9. Where we now sit, the rank thistle nodded in the wind 
and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. 
10. All that a boy needs is room to play in and companions 
to play with, and he is as happy as a king. 

Remark i. — These sentences should be written upon the blackboard 
one by one, and the required words marked and parsed. 

Remark 2. — Put what or who before the verb, and the answer to the 
question is the subject. Thus : John writes. Who writes ? John, 
Cats mew. What mew ? Cats. 

Exercise IV. 

H®* Let the pupil parse the bases of the subject and the finite 
verbs in the following extract : 

It was summer and I was attending school. The seats 
were hard, the lessons were dry, and the walls of the school- 
room were cheerless. An indulgent, sweet-faced girl was my 
teacher ; and I presume she felt the irksomeness of the con- 
finement quite as severely as I did. The weather was delight- 
ful, and the birds were singing everywhere; and the thought 
came to me that if I could only stay out of doors, and lie 
down in the shadows of a tree, I could get my lesson. 

Exercise V. 

Jl®" Let the pupil parse the bases of the subject and the finite 
verbs i?i the following imperative sentences : 

1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa- 

tives. 

2. My soul turn from them, — turn we to survey. 

3. Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure of future harms, 



32 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Woe worth the chase ! Woe worth the day ! 

5. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king! 
Confusion on thy banners wait ! 

6. Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And dead to joy, forget my heart to beat. 

7. God bless our native land. 

8. Suffice it to say. 

9. Long live our country's fame. 
10. A father's blessing rest upon you. 

5. Compound Subjects. 
Exercise VI. 

1. These changes in the meanings of words, this ebb and 
flow of significance, is constantly going on. 

2. This metaphor and metamorphosis of words is curious. 

3. All order, all subordination, all unanimity was lost. 

4. There is a wonderful splendor, variety, arid luxuriance 

in the vegetation of those quick and ardent climates. 

5. There are plenty of good words which were never in a 

dictionary. 

6. The rudest habitation, the most unpromising and scanty 

portion of land, in the hands of an Englishman of 
taste, becomes a little paradise. 

Note. — When two or more singular nouns express a collective idea, 
and are connected by the conjunction and, the verb must be singular, 
viz: 

I. If the nouns represent but one object — 

(«.) In its parts; as, Flesh and blood (man) hath not re- 
vealed it ttnto thee, 
[b.) Under different aspects ; as, Z!^^ saint, //^^ father, and the 
HUSBAND PRAYS. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

{c.) By repetition; as. There is a wisdom, a wonderful WIS- 
DOM, which we cannot fathom, 

2. If several singular subjects — 

(a;.) Follow the verb ; as — 

Thirty days HATH September, 

April, June, ^/^^ November. 
(3.) Are modified by eacll^ every^ MO, or not; as — 

Not enjoyment, and not sorrow. 

Is our destined end or way. 

3. If some of the subjects are plural, or that nearest the verb is modi- 
fied by no or not ; as. All work and ^o play makes Jack a dull boy, 

4. If the subject consists of a phrase, motto, proverb, or any expres- 
sion considered as a whole ; as. To be or not to be, is the question ; 
To err is hzc?nan. 

5. If the subject is followed by several nouns in apposition, or the last 
noun is a summation of what preceded ; as, A portion of his TIME, yfz/^ 
or six HOURS a day, WAS devoted to study ; War^ peace, darts, rivers, 
EVERYTHING in short, IS alive in Homer, 

6. If two or more nouns represent a thing as a whole, or one repre- 
sents a part of which the other represents the complementary part ; as, 
The FORCE ^;^<3r DIRECTION of personal satire IS no longer tmderstood, 

7. When, however, the nouns represent kindred things and not com- 
plementary parts, or when the things are distinct and particular, the verb 
must be plural; as. Industry a;2<^ temperance go hand in hand. 



34 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



CHAPTER IV. 
COMPLEMENTAL RELATIONS, 

A Transitive Verb is a word which asserts the act of one 
object as affecting^ producing^ or cognizing another object 
(C/. //. Circle, Chap, VIL). 

A Noun or a Pronoun used to complete the meaning of a 
transitive verb or preposition, is called a complement. 

There are three complemental relations, viz : 

1. The relation of the direct object (C/. II, Circle, Chap, 

VIII), 

2. The relation of the object of a preposition ; and 

3. The relation of the indirect object. 

1. The Relation of the Direct Object. 

Exercise I. 

$^* Lei the f allow i7tg sentences be written upon the black- 
board : 

I. John struck James, 2. Birds build nests, 

3. Henry tasted the honey, 4. The bee stang him. 

5. He saw thon, 6. He wrote a letter, 

7. He sung a song, 8. He struck a blow. 

Remark. — James and him denote the objects affected by struck and 
stung ; honey and them denote the objects cognized by tasted Tsxi^ saw, 
while nests and letter denote the objects produced by build 2iTid. wrote. 
As tlie nouns and pronouns denoting these objects are in the objective 
case, we infer — 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

Rule III. For the Complement of the Verb. — A 
noun or a pronoun used as the complement of a transitive 
verb must be in the objective case. 

Model for Parsing". 

Example. — Birds build 7iests, 

Nests is a common noun, declined, sing. nom. nest, 
poss. nesf s, obj. 7iest^ plur. nom. nests^ poss. nests\ 
obj. nests I of the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender; it is used as the complement of the 
verb build, and is therefore in the objective case, 
according to Rule III. : A noun or a pronoun used 
as the complement of a transitive verb ?7iust be in 
the objective case. 
Remark i. — Be sure and associate the word complement with the 

words OBJECTIVE CASE. 

Remark 2. — The formula for parsing the basis of the subject is a 
general one for parsing nouns or pronouns, except that the rule changes 
with each different construction. 

Exercise II. 
1^* Parse all the words in the following exercise : 
I. Boys fly kites. 2. Girls make dolls. 

3. Beavers build dams. 4. Rats gnaw holes. 

5. John writes letters. 6. Mary sings songs. 

7. William struck James 8. James is struck. 

9. Boys sell papers. 10. Girls love flowers. 

II. Men wear shoes. 12. Squirrels gather nuts. 

Exercise III. ' 

1^* Parse the subjects, finite verbs ^ and complements in the 
following extract : 



36 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. *^ How happy/' exclaimed this child of air, 
'^ Are the holy spirits who wander there, 

'Mid flowers that never shall fade or fall ! 
Tho' mine are the gardens of earth and sea, 
And the stars themselves have flowers for me. 
One blossom of heaven outblooms them all ! " 

2. * '^ * ^^ Blood like this. 
For Liberty shed, so holy is. 

It would not stain the purest rill 

That sparkles among the bowers of bliss ! 
O, if there be on this earthly sphere, 
A boon, an offering Heaven holds dear, 
'T is the last libation Liberty draws 
From the heart that bleeds and breaks in her cause ! " 

Remark. — These extracts should be written upon the blackboard, 
sentence by sentence, and the words to be parsed selected and marked. 
This recognition and selection of what has been learned has great edu- 
cational value, and should be continued until pupils can do it readily. 

2. The Relation of the Prepositional Object. 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun 
to show its relation to some preceding word (C/. ///. Circle, 
Chap. VIIL\ 

Exercise IV. 

Ji^" Let the following sentences be written upon the black- 
board: 

1. The hunting-land of his tribe was changed. 

2. No light canoe now shot down the river. 

3. A mingled expression of grief passed over his face. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

4. He watched a loaded boat in its passage across the 

stream. 

5. He looked upon the fair scene with a troubled gaze. 

6. The place of her retreat was described to her on her 

way to it. 

Remark. — In the first sentence, the word of shows the relation of 
tribe to hunting-land. Since the relation is between the objects repre- 
sented by two nouns, the element, of his tribe, performs the office of an 
ADJECTIVE. In the second sentence, down shows the relation of river 
to shoty and the element, down the river, is therefore adverbial. In 
both these cases, as in all others, the preposition shows a relation 
between its object and the noun or verb on which it depends^ and the 
object is generally in the objective case. Hence — 

Rule IV. For the Preposition. — A preposition con- 
nects its COMPLEMENT to the NOUN or VERB Upon which it 

DEPENDS. 

Rule V. For the Prepositional Complement. — A 

NOUN or a PRONOUN used as the complement of a preposition 
must be in the objective case. 

Models for Parsing. 

Example. — The hunting-land of his tribe was changed. 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of tribe to 
hunting-land, which words it connects, according 
to Rule IV. : A preposition connects its complement 
to the nou7i or verb upon which it depends. 

Tribe is a collective noun, declined, sing. nom. tribe, 
poss. tribe' Sy obj. tribe, plur. nom. tribes, poss. 
tribes\ obj. tribes ; of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender; it is used as the comple- 
ment of the preposition of, and is therefore in the 



e 



38 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

objective case, according to Rule V. : A noun or 
a pronoun used as the complement of a preposition 
must be in the objective case. 

Exercise V. 

Jl^* Let the pupil parse the prepositions afid their comple- 
ments in the follow i7ig senteitces : 

1. I never was a man of feeble courage. 

2. I have stood in the front of the battle. 

3. Swords were circling around me like fiery serpents in 

the air, 

4. Many years have gone by on the wings of light and 

shadow. 

5. The object of their mirth was tossing on a bed of sick- 

ness. 

6. The jail in which he had been imprisoned stood at some 

distance from Pekin. 



3. The Relation of the Indirect Complement. 

The Indirect Complement is a noun or a pronoun denoting 
the object to or for which any thing is done. 



Exercise VI. 

Let the following sentences be written upon the black- 
board : 

1. John gave an apple to George, 

2. John gave George an apple. 

3. The shoemaker made a pair of boots /<^r him, 

4. The shoemaker made him a pair of boots. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

5. The traveler told a wonderful story to me. 

6. The traveler told me a wonderful story. 

Remark. — In \kiQ first, third, 2^x1^ fifth sentences above, the indi- 
rect complement is preceded by a preposition, while in the second, 
fourth, and sixth, the same thought is expressed without a preposition. 
The difference arises from the relative position of the two complements. 
If the indirect complement precedes the direct complement it does not 
require a preposition, and will not ordinarily admit of one. Hence — 

Rule VI. For the Indirect Complement. — A noun 
or a pronoun used as the indirect complement of a verb, if 
placed before the direct compleineiity is in the objective case 
without a preposition. 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — She gave him //. 

Hitn is a personal pronoun, declined, sing, nom, he, 
poss. his^ oh], hi^n, plur. nom. they, poss. their or 
theirs, obj. the?7i ; of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender; it is used as the indi- 
rect complement of gave, and is therefore in the 
objective case, according to Rule VI. : A noun or 
a pronoun used as the indirect complement of a verb, 
if placed before the direct complement, is in the ob- 
jective case without a preposition. 

Exercise YII. 

"^S^ Let the pupil select and parse all the C07nple7?ients in 
the following sentences : 

I. There is a narrow pass between the mountains in the 
neighborhood of Bendearg. 



40 FOURTH CIRCLE IK ENGLISH GRAMJ^IAR. 

2. He purchased a commission in the army. 

3. I know to what I expose myself. 

4. It takes thy ready cash and pays thee nought. 

5. He told her his wretchedness. 

6. I would have given him my cloak, if he had asked it. 

7. We pay great respect to taste and beauty, but very little 

to womanhood. 

8. Oh, what brightness it gives to life ! 

9. What beauty, what adornment it gives to Christianity ! 

10. And then he was obliged to give them utterance. 

11. Come and trip it as you go. 
On the light fantastic toe. 

Exercise VIII. 

"^^^ Parse all the complements and prepositions in the fol- 
lowing extracts : 

1. Rise, stricken city ! from thee throw 
The ashen sackcloth of thy woe ; 
And build, as to Amphion's strain, 
To songs of cheer, thy walls again. 

2. January gray is here, 

Like a sexton by her grave ; 
February bears the bier ; 

March with grief doth howl and rave; 
And April weeps j but, O ye Hours ! 
Follow with May's fairest flowers. 

3. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. 

From the seas and the streams ; 
I bear light shade for the leaves^ when laid 
In their noonday dreams. 



FOrPvTH CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GKA:^r\IAPw. 41 



CHAPTER V. 

ATTRIBrxr^'E KELATIOXS. 

A word is used attributively when it denotes what is asserted 
of an object. 

Remark. — In the sentence, the apple is red, the word red expresses 
an attribute which belongs to many other objects beside the apple, while, 
on the other hand, the apple has many qualities beside redness. Quali- 
fying adjectives and common nouns express ^«?«^riV ideas, and the act 
of thinking by which an individual is subsumed under a general notion 
is called predication, the germ of all thinking and knowing. In the 
attributive relations, the predication becomes explicit, what is ascribed 
(the attribute) being expressed by a separate w^ord. But all limiting or 
modifying is implicit predication. But the process is reversed, — a 
generic term being restricted in its application through determinative 
words. Chapter VI. will treat implicit predication, or determinative 
relations. 

Attributes are of two kinds, viz: i. Substajitiies ; and 2. 
Adjectives, 

1. Substantives as Attributes. 
Exercise I. 

Jl^* Let the following sentences be written upon the black- 
board : 

1. Horses are animals. 

2. John is a man, 

3. Mary is a woman. 

4. They made Napoleon emperor. 



42 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISJBE GRAMMAR. 

5. They made her e77ipress. 

6. The small boy became a large man. 

Remark. — ^^The noun or pronoun used attributively ahvays denotes the 
same person or thing as the noun denoting the object of which the predi- 
cation is made, and must therefore be in the same number and gender; 
and since it is in the same relation to the verb, it must be in the same 
case. Hence — 

Rule VII. For the Attributive Substantive. — A 

noun or a pronoun used attributively is in the sa^ne number, 
GENDER, and CASE as the noun or pronoun denoting the same 
object. 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — Tennyson is a poet. 

Poet is a common noun, declined, sing. nom. poet^ 
poss. poef s, obj. poet, plur. nom. poets, poss. poets\ 
obj. poets ; of the third person ; it is of the singular 
number, masculine gender^ and nominative case, 
• to agree with Tennyson, according to Rule VII. — 
A noun or a projioun used attributively is in the 
same nu77iber, gender, and case as the noun or pro- 
noun denoting the same object. 
Example. — They made him chairman. 

Chairman is of the singular number, masculine gen- 
der, and objective case, to agree with him. 

Exercise II. 

W^ Let the pupil parse all the attributes in the following 
sentences : 

1. Talent is something, but tact is everything. 

2. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging taste, the 

keen smelly and the lively touch. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43. 

3. It is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of all 

difficulties, the remover of all obstacles. 

4. Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is weight, tact is 

momentum; talent knows what to do, tact knows 
how to do it. 

5. It is the caliph's glorious armament. 

6. Tennyson was made poet-laureate in 1850. 

7. The poor shoemaker became the learned statesman. 

2. Adjectives as Attributes. 

Exercise III. 

1^^^ Let the folloiving sentences be written tipon the black- 
board : 

1. The apples are not quite ripe, 

2. Blackberries are green when they are red. 

3. This man is wise and iiitelligent. 

4. They painted the walls red 2.n^ the windows white, 

5. Leave the lily white but tinge the violet blue, 

6. The fields \oo\i fresh and green. 

Remark. — The attributive adjective describes the condition, and is 
joindd to the noun denoting the object to which it refers. Thus : Ripe 
denotes the condition of the oh]^(:X. apples, r^</ describes walls, white 
describes lily^ and fresh and green show the condition of the fields. 
Although its grammatical relation is mediate through the verb (C/*. ///. 
Circle, Chap, II.~), still it is joined to the noun, denoting the object 
whose condition it describes. Hence — 

Rule VIII. For the Attributive Adjective. — The 

ATTRIBUTIVE adjective is joined to the noun representing the 

OBJECT to which it REFERS. 



44 FOURTH CmCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — He painted the door green. 

Green is a qualifying adjective, not compared ; it has 
no degree ; it is used with paint to form the predi- 
cate, and is joined to door, according to Rule 
VIIT. — The attributive adjective is joined to the 
noun representi^ig the object to which it refers. 

Formula. — i. Kind; 2. Comparison; 3. Use* 4. Con- 
struction ; 5. Rule. 

Exercise IV. 

1. My divinity makes my miseries eternal. 

2. They do not regard beauty necessary. 

3. She makes her household very happy. 

4. He was considered learned and eloquent. 

5. I came away paralyzed and as passive as a child. 

6. The moonlight streamed in, pure, bright, soft, lambent, 

and yet distinct and clear. 

7. And all the air grew strangely sweet. 

8. She only looked more meek and fair. 

9. Ah ! had the vintage plenteous grown ! 

10. Ah me ! I might have died content. 

11. Fair seemied the old, but fairer still the new. 

12. The very air grows dim and gray. 

13. The vicar's right ; he says that we 
Are ever wayward, weak, and blind. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 



CHAPTER VI. 

DETERMmSTATIVE RELATIONS. 

A word used to fix the application of another word, 
may be called a Determinative. 

The following grammatical relations are determinative, 
viz : 

/. The Modifying Adjective. 
II. The Possessive. 

III. The Appositive. 

IV. The Adverb. 

V, The Nou7i of Quantity. 
VI, Participials used Adverbially. 

1. The Modifying' Adjective. 

Exercise I. 
"^^ Let the following lines be written upon the blackboard: 
Clear, placid Leman ! thy contrasted lake, 

With the wide world I dwell in, is a thing 
Which warns me, with its stillness, to forsake 
Earth's troubled waters for a purer spring. 

Remark. — Adjectives always refer to objects, and are connected in 
thought with these objects. As modifiers, adjectives are always joined 
to nouns. Hence — 

Rule IX. For the Modifying Adjective. — The 

Modifying Adjective is joined to the noun whose application 
it determines. 



46 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models for Parsing. 

Example. — This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing. 

This is a limiting adjective, not compared; it has no 
degree ; it is used to determine the application of 
sail^ to which it is joined, according to Rule IX. : 
The modifying adjective is joined to the noun whose 
app'ication it determines. 

Quiet is a qualifying adjective j compared, positive 
quiety comparative, more quiet, superlative, most 
quiet; of the positive degree; it is used to deter- 
mine the application of sail, to which it is joined, 
according to Rule IX. : The modifying adjective is 
joined to the noun whose application it determines. 

Exercise II. 

J|@* Parse the adjectives in the following extracts : 

1. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing 

To waft me from distraction ; once I loved 

Torn ocean's roar, but thy soft murmuring 

Sounds sweet, as if a sister's voice reproved, 

That I with stern delight should e'er have been so moved. 

2. How sweet the hour of Sabbath talk, 

The vale with peace and sunshine full. 
Where all the happy people walk, 

Decked in their home-spun flax and wool ! 
Where youth's gay hats with blossoms bloom ; 

And every maid with simple art^ 

Wears on her breast, like her own heart, 
A bud whose depths are all perfume ; 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

While every garment's gentle stir 
Is breathing rose and lavender. 

3. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn. 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 

4. Can storied urn, or animated bust, 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? 
Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust. 
Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 

Note. — Frequently a noun is used to determine the application of 
another noun, as in such sentences as these : No state chicanery sank 
him to the vulgar level of the great ; He fastened an iron ring to a 
TEN-FOOT pole. If the modifying noun simply notes some characteristic 
of the limited noun, it must be neither pluralized nor put into the pos- 
sessive case. It retains its simple unmodified form. 



2. Thi9 Possessive (C/. //. Circle, pp. 48-56). 
Exercise III. 
Let the following sentoices be written upon the black- 



board : 

1. My neighbor's bees have left their hive. 

2. They brought John the Baptist's head in a charger. 

3. I have read William Henry Harrison's Message. 

4. He sold his son-in-law's farm. 

5. They described the Duke of Wellington's achievements. 

6. We returned after a day or two's absence. 

7. Bring me Walker's, Webster's, and Worcester's dic- 

tionaries. 

8. Can you point out Mason and Dixon^s line ? 



48 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — A word or expression placed before a noun to limit its 
application, and denoting an object different from the limited noun, 
takes the possessive form. Hence — 

Rule X. For the Possessive. — A noun, pronoun, or 
expression, placed before a noun to limit its application, and 
denoting a different object, takes the possessive form. 



Model for Parsing*. 

Example. — He sells boys^ and men' s clothing. 

Boys' is a common noun, declined, sing. nom. boy, 
poss. boy's, obj. boy ; plur. nom. ^^^j^'^, poss. boys\ 
obj. boys ; of the third person, plural number, mas- 
culine gender; it is used to limit the application 
of the noun clothing, and therefore takes the pos- 
sessive form, according to Rule X.: A noun, pro- 
noun, or expression, placed before a noun to limit its 
application, and denoting a different object, takes the 
possessive for7n , 

Remark. — The expression, The Duke of Wellington, is a title, and 
must be taken as a single noun, and hence the sign of possession is 
attached to the last word whenever such expressions are used to limit a 
noun. As the clothing for boys is different from men's clothing, the 
sign of possession is attached to each word. 

Exercise IV. 

Parse all the possessives in the following sentences : 
The soul, of origin divine, 

God's glorious image freed from clay, 
In heaven's eternal sphere shall shine, 
A star of day ! 



FOURTH CIRCLE IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

2. And Evan's, Donald's fame rings in each clansman's ears. 

3. Bury the Great Duke 
With an empire's lamentation ! 

4. My castles are my king's alone 
From turret to foundation-stone. 

5. Day set on Norham's castled steep, 
And Tweed's fair river broad and deep, 

And Cheviot's mountains lone. 

Remark. — Sometimes a possessive is used to indicate the possession 
of an indefinite or previously mentioned object, or to express place 
where. Some would supply a noun after the possessive, but this does 
not dispose of the idiom. The sentence. This is an anecdote of Frank- 
lin's-zzz This is one of Franklin's anecdotes. But an established form 
of speech must be disposed of as it is, and hence we infer — 

Rule XI. For Possess! ves -without Objects. — A 

noun or a pronoun indicating the possession of an unexpressed 
object^ takes the possessive form. 

Exercise V. 

f^" Let the pupil parse the possessives in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. Gay hope is ours. 

2. Ye are Christ's. 

3. I bought the watch at Jaccard's. 

4. This is an anecdote of Franklin's. 

5. I stopped at the doctor^s. 

6. I'll thump that head of yours, 

7. He desired no one's favor much as the King's Majesty's. 

8. Such hand as Marmion's had not spared 
To cleave the Douglas' head. 

4 



50 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — K participial 7toun {Cf. II. Circle, Chap. Ill) has the 
nature of both the noun and the verb ; it notes a separate entity, and 
sometimes attributes an act or state to some other entity, as in the sen- 
tences, I saw him FALL; I heard of Johri's MARRYING Mary, in which 
fall and marrying are participial nouns referring to him and Johit' s as 
subjects. In the sentence, To be good is to be happy, the participial 
noun to be is limited by the words good and happy ^ according to the 
principle that when the quality of an object and not the quality of an act 
or state is to be noted, the determination is expressed by an adjective, 
as in the sentences, The moon shines bright, not brightly ; You look 
SICK, not sickly. We must distinguish between the manner of an act or 
state, and the quality of an object. 

Exercise VI. 

Jl®** Let the pupil parse the possessives and participial nouns 
in the following sentences : 

1. He is opposed to John's marrying Mary. 

2. Taking a madman's sword to prevent his injuring him- 

self is not theft. 

3. I heard of his writing you letters. 

4. I was not aware of his being a minister. 

5. We saw him striking his brother. 

6. Robbing the poor is as dishonorable as it is wicked. 

7. We heard him deliver a thrilling discourse. 

8. He saw the enemy rapidly approaching him. 

3. The Appositive. 

Exercise VII. 

Jl®" Let the following sentences be written upon the blacks 
board: 

1. His mind overawed majesty itself. 

2. The emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

3. We, the people of the United States, do ordain this Con- 

stitution. 

4. The patriarch Abraham was the friend of God. 

5. Tennyson^ the poet-laureate, wrote ^^The Princess.*' 

6. Paul the apostle was beheaded at Rome. 

7. Every inhabitant, man, woman, and child, was aroused. 

8. Charles Francis Adams, the grandson of John Ouincy 

Adams, and great-grandson of John Adams, is inter- 
ested in educational reform. 

Remark. — A word or a group of words which of itself names a defi- 
nite object, is called a proper noun {Cf. IL Circle, Chap. /.). A proper 
noun cannot be limited by a qualifying adjective, but a common noun 
may be placed after it to point out some distinguished trait, or a proper 
noun may determine the application of a common noun. As a noun thus 
used notes the same object, it must -generally be in the same number and 
gender, and being in the same construction it must also be in the same 
case. Hence — 

Rule XII. For the Appositive. — A noun placed afler 
a noun or pronou7i to limit it, 7?iust be in the same number, 
GENDER^ and CA.'^IS., 

Model for Parsing. 
Example. — Macaulay^ the historian^ is an eloquent writer. 

Historian is a common noun, declined, sing. nom. 
historian, ^os^, historian s, obj. historia^ij plur. nom. 
historians, poss. historians^ obj. historians ; of the 
third person ; it is placed after Macaulay to limit its 
application, and must therefore be in the singular 
number, masculine gender^ and nominative case lo 
agree with Macaulay, according to Rule XII. : A 
noun placed after a noun or pronoun to limit it, must 
be in the same nufnber, gender, and case. 



52 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VIII. 

1. A portion of his time, five or six hours a day, was de- 

voted to study. 

2. War, peace, darts, rivers, everything in short, is alive in 

Homer. 

3. Time, 
Time, the tomb-builder, holds his fierce career, 
Dark, stern, all pitiless. 

4. The spirits of the seasons seem to stand. 

Young Spring, bright Summer, Autumn's solemn form, 
And Winter with his aged locks. 

5. What cdnstitutes a State ? , 

Not high-raised battlements or labored mound. 

Thick wall or moated gate ; 
Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crowned ; 

Not bays and broad-arm ports. 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride ; 

Not starred and spangled courts, 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. 

No ! Men, high-minded men, 

Men who their duties know, 
But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain. 

Note. — Since the thought which words embody determines their 
grammatical form, the collective idea expressed by one word may be 
expressed by several other words, some of which are singular while 
others are plural. 

4. The Adverb. 

Exercise IX. 
Let the following sentences he written upon the black- 



board : 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRA^OIAR. 53 

1. The want of shoes and stockings made both unneces- 

sary. 

2. Harley turned his eye briskly upon the beggar. 

3. This unpromising look silenced the prophet immediately. 

4. I have often thought of turning fortune-teller for a week 

or two myself. 

5. I like your frankness much. 

6. It went against me to work ever after. 

7. I tell all my misfortunes truly. 

8. With the power of a good memory, I succeed reasonably 

well as a fortune-teller. 

9. But yesterday the word of Caesar might 

Have stood against the world ; now lies he there, 
And none so poor to do him reverence. 

Remark. — Circumstantial adverbs {Cf. II. Circle, p, ^6) may be 
placed before or after the subject and predicate, while intensive adverbs, 
except only, merely, chiejly, 3ind Jirsl, are placed before the word which 
they limit. Hence — 

Rule XIII. For the Adverb. — T/ie adverb is joined to 
the VERB^ ADJECTIVE^ OT Other ADVERB whose application it 
deterinines. 

Models for Parsing*. 

Example. — Now lies he there. 

And none so poor to do hi?n revere?tce. 

Now is a circumstantial adverb, not compared, it has 
no degree ; it limits lies, to which it is joined, 
according to Rule XIII. : The adverb is joined to 
the verb, adjective, or other adverb whose application 
it determines. 

So is an intensive adverb, not compared, it has no 



54 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

degree; it is joined to poor to limit it^ according to 
Rule XIII. : The adverb is joined to the verb, adjec- 
tive, or other adverb whose application it deteri7iines. 

Exercise X. 

"^^ Let the pupil parse all the adverbs in the following 
extracts : 

1. Let me narrate exactly how it happened. 

2. He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 

3. And out again I curre and flow 

To join the brimming river; 
For men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever. 

4. From pine and poplar, here and there, 
A cloud, a flash, a crash, a thud, 

A warrior's garment rolled in blood, 
A yell that rent the mountain air 
Of fierce defiance and despair, 
Did tell who fell, and when and where 
Then tighter drew the coils around. 
And closer grew the battle-ground. 
And fewer feathered arrows fell, 
And fainter grew the battle-yell, 
Until upon the hill was heard 
The short sharp whistle of the bird. 

5. The Noun of Quantity. 

Exercise XI. 

I®* Let the following be written upon the blackboard : 
A noun may be used adverbially to express the following 
relations, viz : 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR. 55 

1. Time how long ; as, He remained two years. 

2. Tijne when; as^ I arrived this morning. 

3. Price ; as, Wheat is a dollar a bushel. 

4. Weight ; as, He weighed two hundred pounds. 

5. Measure ; as. The field contains ten acres. 

6. Distance ; as, He rode ten miles. 

7. Quantity ; as, She talked a great deal. 

8. Manner; as, She walked a queen. 

9. Place or direction; as, He went north home. 

Remark. — A noun thus used to express various kinds of quantity is, 
by analogy, in the objective case, and is rarely preceded by a preposi- 
tion. Hence — 

Rule XIV. For the Noun of Quantity. — A noun 
used to denote quantity or inanner is in the objective case gen- 
erally without a preposition. 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — The street is five miles long. 

Miles is a common noun, declined, sing. nom. milCf 
poss. mile^Sy obj. 7?iile ; plur. nom. miles, poss. miles\ 
obj. miles ; of the third person, plural number, neu- 
ter gender; it is used to denote quantity, and is 
therefore in the objective case, according to Rule 
XIV. : A noun used to denote quantity or manner is 
i7i the objective case generally without a preposition. 

Exercise XII. 

Jl®^ Let the pupil parse the nouns denoting quantity or man- 
ner in the following : 

1. He walked a good round pace. 

2. Harley had destined sixpence for him before. 



56 FOUKTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The farther they proceeded the better. 

4. It is not worth while to consider it now. 

5. The man was about thirty paces off. 

6. I knew him long ago. 

7. John fell a victim to his ungovernable passions. 

8. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More died victims of re- 

ligious persecution, 

9. My wife, sweet soother of my cares, fell a victim to 

despair. 

10. The gentle Sidney lived the shepherd's friend. 

11. Minerva's temple stood a land-mark to mariners. 

12. His father's house stands a ruin. 

6. Participials used Adverbially. 

Exercise XIII. 

]^^ Lef the following sente7tces be written upon the black- 
hoard : 

1. He came riding unarmed. 

2. They returned rejoicing and praising God. 

3. Her clear, sweet voice came ringing upon the air. 

4. I was forced to beg my bread. 

5. He went to see his friend this morning. 

6. Read so as to be heard. 

7. My friend is nearly ready to go. 

8. This pupil is very anxious to learn his lessons well. 

9. He has a fine opportunity to enrich himself. 

Remark. — Infinitives and Participles are used adverbially to express 
three tilings, viz : 

1. Co7tco77iitaitt actio7t ; as, Her voice came ringing on the air. 

2. Extentf purpose, or coitsequeitce ; as, I was forced to beg my 

bread ; He went to see his friend; Read so as*to be heard. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

3. Respect wherein ; as, I am ready to go ; He is anxious to learn ; 
It is time to rise. 
Since in all these cases the participial limits the noun, verb, or adjec- 
tive which it follows, we may infer — 

Rule XV. For Participials used Adverbially. — A 

participial used adverbially is joined to the noun, verb, or 
ADJECTIVE which it limits. 



Models for Parsing. 

Example. — John has a desire to learn. 

To learn is the present active infinitive of the verb 
learn; principal parts, pres. learn, past^ learned, 
past participle, learned ; it is used to limit the noun 
desire, according to Rule XV. : A participial used 
adverbially is joined to the noun^ verb, or adjective 
which it li77iits. 

Exercise XIV. 

"^^^ Let the pupil parse all the participials in the following 
sentences : 

1. He has a desire to learn and a wish to excel. 

2. He has a heart to pity and a hand to help. 

3. I have bread to eat ye know not of. 

4. Who allowed you to scratch my slate ? 

5. The enemy is seen approaching us. 

6. A wind is made to pass over the earth. 

7. Rich tints gleam along the eastern clouds like watch- 

fires burning in the dawn. 

8. O for the wings of the albatross to sweep the trackless 

wastes of air. 

9. He was not only a scholar but also a wit. 



58 FOUKTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR. 



CHAPTER VII 

COXJUXCTIVE RELATIOlSrS. 

Conjunctives are words whose function it is to connect 
words^ clauses, and sentences. 

There are three kinds of Conjunctives^ viz : 

/. Conjunctions, 
II, Conjunctive Pronouns ^ and 
III, Conjunctive Adverbs. 

A Conjunction is a word which simply connects words, 
phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

Conjunctions are either COORDINATE or SUBORDI- 
NATE. 

1. The Use of Coordinate Conjunctions. 

Coordinate conjunctions are used to form compound ele- 
ments or sentences. 

Exercise I. 

M&" let the following sentences be written upon the black- 
board : 

1. Life is short and art is long. 

2. John and Mary sing and play. 

3. He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain. 

4. He had not changed^ nor wished to change, his place. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

5. The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, 
Sat by his fire, and talked the night away, 
Wept o'er his wounds, or^ tales of sorrow done^ 
Shouldered his crutch and showed how fields were won. 

6. For other aims his heart had learned to prize, 
More bent to raise the wretched, than to rise. 

Remark. — Coordinate conjunctions are of three kinds, viz: Copu- 
lative, adversative^ and alternative. 

And is called a r^/?//^//^'^ conjunction, because it connects elements 
or sentences representing similar conceptions or ideas ; as, The heavens 
declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork, 

Btit, however, yet, still, notwithstanding, and nevertheless are 
called adversative conjunctions, because they connect elements or sen- 
tences representing contrasted conceptions or ideass; as, Talent is com- 
plimented, BUT tact is rewarded ; I do not build my reasoning wholly 
on the case of persecution; however, / do not exclude it. These 
conjunctions express contrast with increasing emphasis in the following 
order, viz: However, but, yet, still, notwithstanding, nevertheless. 

Or and 7ior are called alternative conjunctions, because they connect 
elements and sentences representing conceptions or ideas, one or both 
of which are excluded; as, He will come to-day o^ to-7norrow ; She 
neither si7igs NOR plays. Either and 7ieither are adjective pronouns, 
being seeming correlatives of or and nor. 

Than is used when the things compared are unequal; as. He is ??iore 
THAN forty years old. 

Hence — 

Rule XVI. For the use of Coordinate Conjunc- 
tions. — A codi'di7iate conjiaictioji co7inects sente7ices of the 
same rank, or words having a coniino7i relation to some other 
word. 

Models for Parsing*. 

Example. — The man can neither read nor write. 

Nor is a coordinate conjunction, and connects read 
and write, according to Rule XVI. : A coordinate 



60 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

conjunction connects sentences of the same rank, or 
words having a common relation to some other word. 

Note. — Either and NErrHER are adjective pronotins, and should not 
be treated as conjunctions. Neither^ in the foregoing sentence, is the 
complement of read and write. The n in n-either and n-or is negative, 
and the sentence is : The man can not read and he cannot write either. 

Example. — John is not only a painter , but also a sculp- 
tor. 

Note. — The words 7iot, only, also, are adverbs. 

Example. — He had not been there for more tua.^ forty 
years. 

Than is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the 
adjectives 77iore and forty, according to Rule XVI. : 

A coordinate conju7tctio7t connects sentences of the same 
rank, or words having a com7no7i relation to so?7te 
other word. 

Note. — Than is then, and precedes the v\^ord noting what is next to 
that which is compared. Thus: John is older than George z=i fohn 
THEN George is older. 



EXERCI&E II. 

* Let the pupil parse all the coordinate conjunctions in the 
following extracts: 

1. And the stately ships go on, 

To the haven under the hill ; 
But oh, for the touch of a vanished hand, 
And the sound of a voice that is still ! 

2. Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war^ 
Or to dance at our bridal, young lord Lochinvar ? 



FOURTH CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

3. There was racing and chasing on Cannobie Lee, 
But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see. 

4. Day hath put on his jacket, and around 
His burning bosom buttoned it with stars. 

5. Stoop, angels, hither from the skies ! 

There is no holier spot of ground 
Than where defeated valor lies, 
By mourning beauty crowned ! 

6. I will not stir, nor wince, nor speak a word^ 
Nor look upon the iron angrily. 

Exercise III. 

M^^ Parse the adversative conjunctions in the followirxg ex- 
tracts : 

1. While yet her cheek was bright with summer bloom, 
Her country summoned, and she gave her all. 

2. He was unready, short, and embarrassed ; yet he wrote 

readily, in an easy and correct style. 

3. Sleep, martyrs of a fallen cause. 
Though yet no marble column craves 

The pilgrim here to pause. 

4. However, let us hearken to good advice, and something 

may be done for us. 

5. Want of care does us more damage than want of knowl- 

edge. 

6. The frequent mention he made of me must have tired 

any one else ; but my vanity was wonderfully delighted 
with it, though I was conscious that not a tenth part 
of the wisdom which he ascribed to me was my own, 
but rather the gleanings I had made of the sense of 
all ages. 



62 FOUKTH CIKCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The Use of Subordinate Conjunctions. 

A complex sentence is a sentence containing a principal 
clause limited by a subordinate clause ; as, He said that he 

WOULD COME. 

A sentence used as a subordinate part of another sentence 
constitutes an element of the third class. 

An Element of the Third Class consists of a con?iective, a 
subject, and 2, predicate, 

A Subordinate Conjunction is a conjunction used to note 
the kind of clause. 

Subordinate Conjunctions introduce five different kinds of 
clauses, viz : 

1. Substantive clauses ; as, He asked whether I went. 

2. Conditioning clauses ; as, If I go, I shall write. 

3. Concessive clauses; as. Although he spoke, I did not 

know him. 

4. Final clauses ; as. Take heed lest you fall. 

5. Causal clauses ; as, He walked, because his horse died. 
A Substantive clause notes a mere statement introduced by 

that or whether. 

A Conditioning clause conditions another clause and is 
introduced by if, unless, or except, 

A Concessive clause notes a concession and is introduced 
by though, although, and sometimes whatever, 

A Final clause notes the purpose, end, or aim with which 
an act is done^ and is introduced by that, lest, or i^i order 
that. 

A Causal clause notes a reason or inference, and is intro- 
duced by as, because, consequently, for, since, then, therefore, 
whereas, and wherefore. 

Hence — 

Rule XVII. For the use of the Subordinate Con- 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAM:\IAR. 63 

junction. — A subordinate conjunction joins the clause of 
which it forms a part to the clause 7uhich it modifies. 

Model for Parsing*. 

Example. — I shall send you the book that you may see it. 

That is a subordinate conjunction used to introduce 
the final clause, that you may see it, which it joins to 
the principal clause, according to Rule XVII. : A sub- 
ordinate conjunctio7i joins the clause of which it forms 
a part to the clause which it modifies. 

Exercise IV. 

"^^ Parse the subordiitate co7iju7ictions in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. If this is treason, make the most of it. 

2. Though he slay me, yet will I serve him. 

3. John said that he would come to-morrow. 

4. Though he was rich^ yet he became poor. 

5. Except ye repent, ye shall likewise perish. 

6. Beware lest the enemy deceive you. 

7. He visited the springs that he might improve his health, 

8. The corn will grow since the soil is enriched. 

9. There is no doubt that he is mistaken. 

10. We hate some persons because we do not know them. 

11. Unless I be by Sylvia in the night, there is no music in 

the nightingale. 

12. You were happy to-day, because you were good. 

13. But while oppression lifts its head. 

Or a tyrant would be lord. 
Though we would thank him for the 
We'll not forget the sword. 



64 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3, The Use of Relative Pronouns. 

Conjunctive pronouns are of three kinds, viz : Relative 
Pronouns, Compound Relative Pronouns, and Interrogative 
Pro7iouns, 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun representing the same 
object as s©me noun or pronoun in the same sentence. 

Exercise V. 

Jl®* ^Let the following 'sentences he written upon the black- 
board : 

1. The pupil who studies diligently, will improve 

2. He was the first that discovered it. 

3. He has such friends as every one should strive to have. 

4. The reward which was promised, shall be given. 

Remark. — Who, which, that, and as are relative pronouns, and 
take the person, number, and gender of the noun or pronoua denoting 
the same object, which is called the antecedeiit. The case of the rela- 
tive depends upon its relation to other words, and is disposed of in the 
same manner as any other noun or pronoun is. Hence — 

Rule XVIII. For the Relative Pronoun. — The 

relative pronoim agrees with its antecedent in person, num- 
ber, and GENDER, but its case depends on its use. 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — The man whom I loved, is dead. 

Whom is a relative pronoun, declined, sing, and plur. 
nom. who, poss. whose, obj. whom ; it is of the third 
person, singular number, masculine gender, to agree 
with its antecedent man, according to Rule XVIII. : 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in 
person, number, and gender, but its case depends on 
its use. It is used as the complement of the verb 
loved, and is therefore in the objective case, accord- 
ing to Rule III. : A itoun or a pronoun used as the 
complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

Exercise VI. 

Parse all the relative pronouns in the following ex- 
tracts : 

1. The earth is the planet on which we live. 

2. He did not know the man to whom he gave it. 

3. O Thou, in whose presence my soul takes delight, 

On whom in affliction I call ! 

4. They died — ah! they died — and we things that are 

now^ 
Who walk on the turf that lies over their brow, 
Who make in their dwellings a transient abode, 
Meet the things that they met on their pilgrimage road. 

5. Ye mariners of England, 

That guard our native seas, 
Whose flag has braved a thousand years, 
The battle and the breeze. 

Remark. — The relative pronouns w/io, w/iic/i, that, and as are used 
as follows : 

Who represents persons. 

Wllicll represents the inferior animals, objects of the neuter gen- 
der, and children. 

Tliat is used to prevent a too frequent repetition of who and which, 
and should be used — 

6 



66 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and things ; as, ne 

MAN and the horse that I saw, were killed. 

2. When the clause is restrictive ; as, hi thoughts that breathe 

and words THAT burn, 

3. When its antecedent is modified by a superlative, by very^ or by 

same; as He was the first that discovered it; The ^kwe. 
man that j/ou saw ; The very thing that / wanted. 

4. When its antecedent is a relative, or is modified by no, not, all, 

any, each, every, or some ; as, // is NOT grief that bids 7ne 
moan, 

5. When its antecedent is a personal pronoun, and no word inter- 

venes; as, Fall HE THAT must , His p^ aise is lost WHO waits 
till all commend. 
As must be used for that when its antecedent is modified by such; 
as. He gave such aid as he alone could give. 



Exercise VII. 

"^^ Parse the relatives in the following sentences : 

1. Mark but my fall and that that ruined me. 

2. My lords, that that I say is this : that that that that gen- 

tleman has advanced is not that that he should have 
proved. 

3. By religion is meant a living up to its principles, that 

is, to act conformably to our best reason. 

4. He that studies English literature without the lights of 

classical learning, loses half the charm of its sentiment 
and style. 

5. Who that reads the poetry of Gray, does not feel that it 

is the refinement of classical taste which gives such 
inexpressible vividness and transparency to its dic- 
tion? 

6. Who that reads Pope and Dryden, does not perceive in 

them the disciples of the old school, whose genius 
was inflamed by the heroic verse of antiquity ? 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAINIMAR. 67 

7, A lady, in speaking of the word that, said : That that 

that that that gentleman parsed was not the that that 
that lady requested him to parse. 

8. I'll prove the word that IVe made my theme 
Is that that may be doubled without blame ; 
And that that that thus trebled I may use, 
And that that that that critics may abuse. 

May be correct. Further, — the dons to bother, — 
Five thats may closely follow one another ; 
For^ be it known, that we may safely write. 
Or say that that that that that man wrote was right ; 
Nay, e'en that that that that that that followed 
Through six repeats the grammar's rule has allowed ; 
And that that that (that that that that began) 
Repeated seven times is right ! — deny 't who can. 

4. The Use of a Oompouiid Relative. 

A Compound Relative pronoun is a conjunctive pronoun 
without an antecedent; as, I heard ^-^ki: he said ; Who steals 
my purse steals trash ; He spoke ks follows. 

Remark. — Ever and soever are generally appended to the compound 
relatives who and what, and sometimes separated from them. 

Model for Parsing*. 

Example. — You do not understand what I say. 

What is a com^pound relative pronoun, declined, sing. 
and PLUR. nom. what, poss. (wanting), obj. what; 
of the third person, singular or plural number, neu- 
ter gender ; it is used as the complement of the verb 
say, and is therefore in the objective case, according 
to Rule III. : A noun or a pronoun used as the com- 
plement of a transitive verb must be in the objective 
case. 



68 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VIII. 

Parse the compound relatives in the following sen- 



tences : 

1. Whoever yields to temptation debases himself with a 

debasement from which he can never arise. 

2. What is thoroughly understood, is easily described. 

3. I will accept whatever you are pleased to bestow. 

4. Life is what we make it. 

5. I have more than I know what to do with. 

6. They asked us what we would have them do. 

7. Whatever is rung on that noisy bell, 
Chime of the hour, or funeral knell, 
The dove in the belfry must hear it well. 

5. The Use of Inter rog^ative Pronouns and Adjectives. 

An Interrogative Pronoun represents the same object as 
the answer to the question it asks; as, Who came with you? 
John. 

Remark i. — The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what. 

Who inquires for the name, or, when the name is given, for some 
description of a person; as, Who was Blennerhasset? 

Which inquires for a particular one of several persons or things ; as. 
Which is yours ? 

What inquires for the kind of thing, or for the character or occupa- 
tion of a person ; as. What have you ? What art thou ? What is 
he? 

Remark 2. — Which and what are Interrogative Adjectives. 

Which inquires for one of two particular objects ; as, Which book 
have you? Ans. The 'LK'SiGY.'K one. 

What inquires for objects not definitely referred to ; as What book 
have you? Ans, Vanity Fair. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 

Remark 3. — Whichever and zvhatever are used as adjectives. 

Whichever means either of two ; as, Take whichever apple you 
please. 

Whatever means any one of several or all ; as, Whatever you do, 
you cannot convince me. 

Exercise IX. 

Ji®** Parse the Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives in 
the followiiig sentences : 

1. I will accept whatever gift you may bestow. 

2. Whatever seeming retrogressions there may be, in the 

final comparison of the ages there is an undeniable 
advancement. 

3. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. 

4. I am beset what way soever I take. 

5. What woful accents load the gale? 

6. What do you say? ^^ What of it? ^' What! 

7. Will they do it ? Dare they do it ? 

Who is speaking? What's the news? 
What of Adams ? What of Sherman ? 
Oh, God grant they won't refuse ! 

6. The Use of Conjunctive Adverbs. 

A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb which limits the verb 
in the clause it introduces ; as, He told me where / could 
find him ; / do not know why he went. 

Conjunctive Adverbs introduce clauses expressing place ^ 
time, cause, manner, and degree. 

Remark i. — Where^ wherever, whither, whithersoever, and whence, 
introduce clauses expressing the relations of //^(T^/ as, Whence M^^ 



70 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

earnest, I came ; where thou art^ there will I be ; and whither thou 
go est, I will go. 

Remark 2. — As, when, whenever, before^ ere, after, while, whilst, 
since, till, and until, introduce clauses expressing the relations oi titne ; 
as, I saw hi?n as I ca?ne ; he rejnained while I was there ; and did not 
leave until / left. 

Remark 3. — Why and wherefore introduce clauses expressing cause ; 
as, He told 77ie why he did it, wherefore I did not punish him. 

Remark 4. — As and how introduce clauses expressing manner ; as, 
Do AS / do ; I shall not tell you how / did it. 

Remark 5. — The is repeated before a comparative to express propor- 
tionate equality ; as. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

Hence — 

Rule XIX. For the Use of Conjunctive Adverbs. — 

The CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB Hmits the verb in the clause it intro- 
duces. 

Model for Parsing". 

Example. — We should grow better while we live. 

While is a conjunctive adverb of time, not compared, 
it has no degree ; it limits live in the clause while 
we live, according to Rule XIX. : The co7ijunctive 
adverb limits the verb in the clause it introduces. 

Exercise X. 

"^^ Parse the conjunctive adverbs in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. When you have nothing to say^ say nothing. 

2. The age of miracles is past, while that of prejudice 

remains. 

3. Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 

4. The robber struck him such a blow that he fell. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 71 

5. Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered 

together. 

6. The science of mathematics performs more than it 

promises. 

7. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

8. Just as the tree was bent, the tree inclined. 

9. The more an avaricious man has, the more he wants. 

10. Henry is taller than his brother. 

11. As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 

wandereth from his home. 

12. It cost much less than you suppose. 

Exercise XI. 

"^B^ Parse the conjunctive adverbs in the following ex- 
tracts : 

1. While the mass is cooling now^ 

Let the labor yield to leisure, 
As the bird upon the bough^ 

Loose the travail to the pleasure. 

When the soft stars awaken 

Each task be forsaken. 

2. ^^ Whence does she come?'* they ask of me ; 

'^ Who is her master, and what her name? *' 
And they smile upon me, pityingly, 

When my answer is ever and ever the same. 

3. As the bleak Atlantic currents 

Lash the wild Newfoundland shore, 
So they beat against the State House, 

So they surged against the door; 
And the mingling of their voices 



72 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Made a harmony profound, 
Till the quiet street of Chestnut 
Was all turbulent with sound. 

7. The Use of Interrog'ative Adverbs and Interroga- 
tive Sentences, 

IitteFFOgative Adverbs inquire for some circum- 
stance of jPIace, Time, Cause, or Manner, and introduce 
indirect interrogative sentences ; as, Wheke do you live? In 
Clinton Street. When did you come? This morning. 
Why did he leave? Because he was compelled. How did 
he go ? In the cars. 

Remark i. — There is a correlation among certain adverbs, one 
answering to another, viz : 





Inter7'ogative. 


Indefinite. 


De77ionstrative. 


Indirect. 




c Where ? 


Somewhere. 


Here or there. 


Where. 


Place. 


1 Whither ? 


Anywhither. 


Hither or thither. 


Whither. 




( Whence ? 


Anywhere. 


Hence or thence. 


Whence. 


Time. 


When? 
I Why? 




Then. 


When. 


Cause. 


( Wherefore ? 




Therefore. 


Wherefore 


Manner. 


How? 


Somehow. 


So, thus, as. 


How. 



Interrogative sentences ask questions, and the answer 
is correlative to part of the sentence. 

Inquiry is denoted in three ways, viz : 

I. By placing the subject after the verb or auxiliary; 
as, Believest thou this ? Have you written your 
letter ? Did he come ? 

Remark 2. — Sentences of this kind are answered by yes^ no, cer- 
tainly, etc., which are equivalent to the sentence repeated in a declara- 
tive form. Yes or no answer direct questions, and are usually parsed 
as adverbs. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRA:M]MAR. 73 

2. By an interrogative pronoun or interrogative adjec- 

tive ; as, Who has my knife ? Ans. /. Whom 
did you see? Ans. Him. Which book has he? 
Ans. The large one. 

Remark 3. — The noun or pronoun expressing the answer is in appo- 
sition with the interrogative pronoun, or the noun modified by the inter- 
rogative adjective, and should, therefore, be parsed by Rule IX. 

3. By an interrogative adverb ; as, Where do you live? 

Ans. In Philadelphia, How did he come? 

Ans. In the cars. 
Remark 4. — The responsive phrases. In Philadelphia, and In the 
cars, are parts of abridged sentences, but may be parsed as adverbial 
phrases modifying the verbs live and come. 

Exercise XII. 
"S^" Parse all the interrogatives in the following sentences : 

1. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud ? 

2. Banished from Rome? What's banished but set free 
From daily contact of the things I loathe? 

Tried and convicted traitor? Who says this? 
Who'll prove it at his peril on my head? 

3. Why, where have you been these twenty long years? 

4. How does the water 

Come down at Lodore ? 

5. '^ Shall I have naught that is fair ? " saith he ; 
'' Naught but the bearded grain ? " 

6. Know' St thou what wove yon wood-bird's nest 
Of leaves, and feathers from her breast ? 

Or how the fish outbuilt her shell, 
Painting with morn each annual cell ? 
Or how the sacred pine-tree adds 
To her old leaves new myriads ? 



74 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
PARTICIPIAL REI.ATIO]^S. 

A Participial is a verb under the form of an Infinitive or 
Participle. 

Remark. — In English we do not distinguish gerunds, ge7'tindiveSf 
and supines from Infinitives and Participles. 

Participials, as such, always refer to some object of which 
they assert an act or state. 

There are four Participial Constructions, viz : 

1. A Participial denoting the final object; as, I saw 

him FALL. 

2. A Participle after a preposition ; as, I heard of his 

COMING. 

3. The Conjunctive Participial Construction ; as, 

Truths CRUSHED to earth, shall rise again. 

4. The Absolute Construction ; as, The door having 

BEEN OPENED, the thief escaped, 

1. The Participial as Pinal Object. 

A Participial denotes \\iQ final object, when it expresses an 
act OF, or an act on, the object denoted by the noun or pro- 
noun to which it refers. 



Exercise I. 
Let the following sentences he written upon the black- 



board : 



FOURTH CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GK A:\JDIAR. 75 

1. Did you see the bird build the nest ? 

2. I heard him sing a patriotic song. 

3. They saw a man standing on the corner. 

4. I have much work to do to-day. 

5. I had this coat made in Paris. 

6. I have bread to eat ye know not of. 

Remark. — In the sentence, Z^/cY j^z^ see the^i^V) b^i^lT) the nest? 
the object of see is not bi^-d, nor build, but the bird building a nest. 
Bird IS, tlie subject of build, but is in the objective case. Hence — 

Rule XX. For the Subject of the Participial. — A 

noun G?' a pronoiui used as the subject of a participial, must 
be in the objective case. 

Rule XXI. For the Participial. — A pa^rticipial de- 
pends up07i the 710U71 or pronoun denoting the object of luhich 
it asserts an act or state. 

Models for Parsing*. 

Example . — / sazu h ini fa 11. 

Him is a personal pronoun, declined, sing. nom. he, 
poss. his, obj. him; plur. nom, they, poss. their ox 
theirs^ obj. them; of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender ; it is used as the subject of 
the infinitive fall, and must therefore be in the 
objective case^ according to Rule XX. : A noun or 
a pronoun used as the subject of a participial, must be 
i7i the objective case. 

Fall IS an intransitive verb, principal parts, pres.y*^//, 
past /<?//, past participle /<:7//^;2; it is the present 
active infinitive, and depends en hij^i, according to 
Rule XXI. : A participial depends upoii the 7ioun or 
pronoun denoting the object of which it asserts a7i act 
or state. 



76 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — The particle to, the sign of the infinitive, means a moving 
forward^ and primarily expressed ai7n or pttrpose. It is not used 
before the infinitive after the active voice of behold^ bid, dare (to ven- 
ture), do., feel, find, have, hear, held, let, make, need, please, 2Si^ see. 

Exercise II. 

Ji@* Parse the subjects and participials in the following sen- 
fences : 

1. We saw them stealthily approaching us. 

2. The general sent the brigade to reconnoitre. 

3. I am pleased to see you knitting. 

4. Are those apples good to eat ? 

5. His neighbors chose him to represent them. 

6. Please it your majesty to give me leave : 

V\\ muster up my friends to meet your grace 
Where and what time your majesty shall please. 

2. The Participle after a Preposition. 

Exercise III. 

|®**Z^/ the following sentences he written upon the black- 
board : 

1. Much will depend on the doctor's coming. 

2. He was possessed beyond the Muse's painting. 

3. I was not aware of his being a lawyer. 

4. I did it to prevent his injuring himself. 

5. There is no harm in a woman's knowing all about 

woman's rights. 
Remark. — The noun or pronoun preceding the participle after the 
preposition is in the possessive case. Hence — 

Rule XXII. For the Possessive as Subject. — The 

subject of a participle after a preposition or verbs of prevent- 
ing must be in the possessive case. 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — I heard of his coming. 

His is a personal pronoun, declined, sing. nom. he, 
poss. his, obj. hi77i, plur. nom. they, poss. their or 
theirs, obj . the7n ; of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender; it is used as the subject of 
the participle co7ning^ and must therefore be in the 
possessive case, according to Rule XXII. : The sub- 
ject of a participle after a preposition or verbs of pre- 
venting 77iust be in the possessive case, 

3. The Conjunctive Participial Construction. 

In the conjunctive participial construction, the participle 
refers to the object denoted by some noun or pronoun in the 
principal sentence. 

Exercise IV. 

"^^ Let the following se7itences be written upon the black- 
board : 

1. I had no relation living. 

2. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

3. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow sur- 

rounded by perpendicular precipices. 

4. Numb*d by the piercing freezing air. 

And burden'd by his game. 
The hunter, struggling with despair, 
Dragged on his shivering frame. 

5. The gates of Heaven were left ajar : 

With folded hands and dreamy eyes, 



78 FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Wandering out of Paradise, 
She saw this planet, like a star, 

Hung in the purple depths of even, — 
Its bridges running to and fro. 
O'er which the white-winged angels go, 

Bearing the holy dead to Heaven ! 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — Let 77ie move slowly through the street , 
Filled with an ever-shiftiiig ti^ain. 

Filled is an intransitive verb, principal parts, pres., 
fill, Y^diSty filled, past part, filled ; it is the present 
passive participle, and refers to street, according to 
Rule XXI. : A Participial depends upoft the noun 
or pronou7t denoting the object of which it asserts an 
act or state, 

4. The Absolute Construction. 

In the absolute construction^ the participle refers to an 
object denoted by a noun having no grammatical connection 
with any other word ; as, The rain havi7tg ceased, we de- 
parted ; His FATHER having died, he had to labor. 

Remark. — The nouns rain 2Ci\di father have no grammatical relation 
to any other words, but are regarded as being in the nominative case. 
Hence — 

Rule XXIII. For the Noun used Absolutely. — A 

noun used absolutely must be in the nominative case, except 
Ah me! 

Model for Parsing. 

Example. — The robbers having left, he gave the alarm. 



rOUPvTH CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GEAADIAR. 79 

Robbers is a common noun, declined, sing. nom. rob- 
ber, poss. robber* s, obj. robber ; plur. nom. robbers^ 
poss. robbers', obj. robbers ; of the third person, 
plural number, masculine gender; it is used abso- 
lutely, and must therefore be in the nominative case, 
according to Rule XXIII. : A noun used absolutely 
must be in the 7io?ni native case. 

Exercise V. 
Parse all the words in the following extracts: 

Ah me ! the scorching sand ! 

The cloudless burned-out blue ! 
The choking air on every hand ! 

Ah me ! the weary way ! 

The burden heavy to bear ! 
The short, swift nights that die to-day. 

The silence everywhere. 

Soon I saw Albert carrying Delia, her head falling back- 
ward and her little feet dragging. 



80 



FOURTH CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE NEW ALPHABET. 

In 1877, the American Philological Association proposed to extend 
the alphabet by introducing new characters for the vowels in arm, not, 
and btit, and by using digraphs for the six consonants chee, ing^ thee, 
ith, ish, and zhee. This constitutes a phonetic alphabet of thirty-two 
letters, corresponding with the thirty-two sounds ; and by means of the 
macron, to show long quantity, and digraphs for the diphthongs, we may 
express forty-four distinctions. The names of the consonants contain 
their power. 



LETTEE. 


1. 


a a 


2. 


A a 


3. 


B b 


4. 


C c 


5. 


Chdli 


6. 


D d 


7. 


E e 


8. 


F f 


9. 


Gg 


10. 


H h 


11. 


I 1 


12. 


J J 


13. 


LI 


U. 


M m 


15. 


N n 


16. 


NG im 


17. 





18. 


e e 


19. 


Pp 


20. 


E r 


21. 


S s 


22. 


SH ^h 


23. 


T t 


24. 


TH til 


25. 


TH fli 


2%. 


U u 


27. 


U u 


28. 


V V 


29. 


W w 


30. 


Yy 


31. 


Z z 


32. 


ZH z:h 



AME. 


EXAMPLES. 


ah 


mamma, papa. 


a 


fan, fair, air. 


bee 


bat, bar, bulb. 


key 


cat, sac, can. 


cHiee 


cHiurJh, Children. 


dee 


deg, drum, did. 


aye (ad. 


pen, pain, vein. 


eff 


fan, freg, frest. 


gee 


gap, girl, grain. 


he 


hat, ham, him. 


ee 


pick, pique, machine 


jay 


jug, jest, jump. 


ell 


lap, lip, lull. 


emm 


man, mum, am. 


enn 


nut, pin, not. 


ing 


sing, wing, lung. 


owe 


go, old, obey. 


awe 


net fork, el. 


pea 


pan, pop, pump. 


are 


rat, rose, burr. 


ess 


sip, gas, brass. 


ish 


^e ^heep, figh. 


tea 


tin, wit, town. 


thee 


then, til em, baHie 


ith 


tiling, strength. 


00 


put, bush, rule. 


u 


but, up, urn 


vee 


vat, vine, five. 


we 


win, wine, wood. 


ye 


yet, yes, yak. 


zee 


is, zebra, zinc. 


zhee 


measure, mezhur. 



